<p>The Middletown Alms House is a historic building at 53 Warwick Street in Middletown, Connecticut, constructed in 1813-1814. It was originally used as a poorhouse and is the oldest surviving building built for housing the poor in Connecticut, as well as one of the oldest such in the United States. and One of the largest structures of the Federal period in Middletown, it was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1982.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Town of Middletown built the Alms House in 1814 to house the town&#39;s poor. Many of the people housed there were required to work, either in the Alms House or in a local industrial business.</p><br>
<p>The building at 53 Warwick Street served as a poorhouse until 1853, when the institution was moved to the Middletown Town Farms facility on Silver Street in the town&#39;s South Farms district.</p><br>
<p>Shortly after, the Hubbard and Curtis Hardware Company occupied the building. This company, which manufactured tools, hardware, and wood-burning stoves, had its principal place of commerce on Main Street (359 Main Street) and manufactured its goods in this building. In the early 20th century, Fred I. Hodge, Sr. owned the Middletown Fire Arms and Specialty which manufactured valve wheels and guns. The Middletown Rifle Club had a rifle range in the basement and Hodge also repaired automobiles there. By 1981, C.B. Stone Inc., a home heating oil dealer, had occupied the building since the early 1930s. It is currently used for offices.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>The three-and-a-half-story building is constructed in the Federal style and made of brick with Flemish bond and a brownstone foundation with an asphalt shingle roof. The architect and builder are unknown. A graphic depiction on an 1825 map indicates that the building was originally embellished by a segmental arch over the entrance door and a classical cupola. A central, slightly projecting, pavilion is still discernible. The building has a structural system of load-bearing masonry with a gable roof.</p><br>
<p>Located to the north on the premises, facing Warwick Street, is a late-Victorian brick residence. This substantial structure, once owned by Mayor Leo B. Santangelo, displays intricate stickwork on the veranda, and decorative brickwork, and is in relatively original condition. The southeast section of this structure is supported by large brownstone blocks. These blocks are the remains of a jail which was built on the Alms House grounds in 1846. It was a small facility, containing only twelve cells, with the principal jail being in Haddam.</p><br>
<p>This structure, which faces north, sits on a 1.3 acre lot on the south side of residential Warwick Street. It is set back from the road behind two late-19th-century houses. A large oak tree to the west shades it.</p><br>
<p>The Nehemiah Hubbard House is a historic house at the corner of Laurel Grove and Wadsworth Street, Middletown, Connecticut. Built in 1745, it is a center-chimney colonial style house built of clapboard siding and brownstone foundation with wood shingle roof; using a structural system of wood frame, post and beam with gable roof. It was built as a residence which is its current use.</p><br>
<h2>Relationship to surroundings</h2><br>
<p>This colonial saltbox house is sited on a large lot at the rural western edge of Middletown. Screened from the front by bushes, trees, and a stone wall, and on the east by a cedar paling fence, the house is very secluded. A two-story gambrel-roofed wing on the west, a two car garage on the north, and a large nineteenth century barn south of the house complete the estate.</p><br>
<h2>Significance</h2><br>
<p>This house was the home of Nehemiah Hubbard, a prominent banker and merchant of late eighteenth century Middletown. The land, part of an original 226 acre tract, belonged to the Hubbard family, noted early settlers of the town, for a number of generations. Nehemiah was in the fourth generation of Middletown Hubbards. Although the house was some distance from the commercial section of Middletown, Hubbard used the property as a home and for extensive farming operations. Nehemiah Hubbard was Deputy Quartermaster for Middletown during the American Revolutionary War, and was the first President of the Middletown Bank. The house remained in the Hubbard family through the nineteenth century. Early in the 20th century, it was the home of Thomas McDonough Russell, Sr.</p><br>
<p>This 1744 center-chimney saltbox retains most of its early features, both interior and exterior. The main fireplace with its beehive oven measures over eight feet wide. Much early hardware remains. The two-story gambrel-roofed "kitchen wing" is added, but is sympathetic in style with the original house. The house underwent restoration in 1929 by the Colonel Wadsworth family. It continues to be used as a residence.</p><br>
<p>The Plumb House is a historic house at 872 Westfield Street in Middletown, Connecticut, USA. It was built in 1804 by James Plumb, and is exceptionally well preserved. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1978.</p><br>
<p>The house is built with clapboard sidings, a brownstone foundation and an asphalt shingle roof. It has a wood frame, with post and beam construction and a hip roof. The architect and builder are unknown. Historically and currently it has been a private residence.</p><br>
<h2>Significance</h2><br>
<p>James Plumb, a well-to-do farmer in Westfield, built this house in 1804 on land inherited from his father, Samuel Plumb. The house remained in the Plumb-Barry family until 1888; since then it has passed through a succession of owners while retaining its traditional residential usage.</p><br>
<p>This finely-scaled Federal style frame house is of a central hall plan; its exterior displays a symmetrical five-bay facade with hip roof and twin chimneys. A denticulated main cornice and delicate window caps add decorative interest to the facade, while attention is drawn to the entrance by a columned porch with cove ceiling. The possibility exists that the northeast kitchen wing is Samuel Plumbs own dwelling house, built around 1740, and relegated to a minor role as an attached dependency by the subsequent construction of James Plumbs "Mansion House".</p><br>
<p>The large original condition of this house, together with its distinctive appearance and compatible site, makes it a rare and pleasing example of early Federal style architecture in Middletown.</p><br>
<h2>Relationship to surroundings</h2><br>
<p>This house faces south from the northeast corner of Westfield and East Streets. Tall shade trees shield the house from the nearby roads. Neighboring structures date from post-World War II development of this formerly rural area.</p><br>
<p>Puyuhuapi Volcanic Group is a volcanic group of cinder cones located at the head of Puyuhuapi Channel, in the Aysén del General Carlos Ibáñez del Campo Region of Chile.</p><br>
<p>Puyuhuapi is one of the volcanoes in the southern segment of the Andean Southern Volcanic Zone, which includes a number of stratovolcanoes. South of this southern segment, a gap without volcanic activity separates the Southern Volcanic Zone from the Austral Volcanic Zone.</p><br>
<p>The volcanic field extends from the western side of the channel north over the head of the channel towards Lake Risopatrón, with one isolated cone found on the eastern side of the channel. The town of Puyuhuapi is located approximately halfway through the field. The cones on the western side are a separate group from the ones towards the north and associated with two different eruption fissures, but both fissures are associated with the Liquiñe-Ofqui fault zone. The basement on which the field is built is formed by rocks of the Patagonian Batholith.</p><br>
<p>The field is formed by cinder cones, while the isolated centre is formed by a fissure fed lava flow. The southernmost cone is also the largest with a diametre of 1,250 m and features a 59 m high secondary cone nested within its 700 m wide summit crater. The eruption fissures also generated lava flows; the cones formed afterwards over the fissures. On the northern end of the Puyuhuapi channel, the eruptions filled part of the channel and separated Lake Risopatrón from it; this activity may have been phreatomagmatic in nature. Two edifices have a volume of 1.1 km3 and 0.1 km3 respectively.</p><br>
<p>The cones were constructed by basaltic andesite, which contains clinopyroxene, olivine and plagioclase. The petrologically primitive composition suggests that they were constructed from primitive asthenosphere derived magmas that reached the surface directly, through the Liquiñe-Ofqui fault system.</p><br>
<p>The cones may be extremely young, one eruption with a volume of about 0.5 km3 may have occurred about 9,000 years ago based on stratigraphy, although the date is fairly uncertain. The glacial isostasy phenomena at the end of the last ice age may have triggered the magma ascent and thus eruptions.</p><br>
<p>The Russell Company Upper Mill is an historic structure in Middletown, Connecticut, built in 1836 and listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The building stands at the junction of Russell Street and East Main Street in South Farms. There is a small pond to the south. East Main Streets commercial and industrial development ends there. To the north, small businesses border the street, followed by the buildings of Russell Manufacturing Company, the areas most dominant feature. Russell Street crosses Sumner Brook nearby and ascends to a large residential district to the west. The mill is currently a condo-apartment complex.</p><br>
<h2>Significance</h2><br>
<p>This factory was erected by the Russell Manufacturing Company in 1836, and is the oldest surviving textile mill building in the city. Incorporated in 1834 by Samuel Russell, Samuel Hubbard and others, in 1841, the company was the first to produce elastic webbing on power looms. By 1896, it manufactured a wide variety of woven products and was the nations largest manufacturer of suspenders. Approximately 900 workers were employed in the companys seven mills.</p><br>
<p>The original brick structure, identified as the "Webb Mill" on the 1859 Walling map, runs parallel to Sumner Brook. A mill race once flowed through the building. The long main factory section has a gabled roof trimmed by a corbeled brick cornice moulding. The exterior of the structure has vertical, metal supports that reinforce the brick walls. The two mansard roofed ells, added prior to 1874, have a number of gabled dormers. A smokestack and decorative towers that crowned different parts of the roof were removed after 1896.</p><br>
<p>The building, together with dam and pond nearby, reflects South Farms&#39; early industrial history. The success of the Russell Manufacturing Company transformed the area into a thriving city district. Three company factories bordered the brook here in 1850. Of these, this structure is the last remaining building.</p><br>
<p>St. Luke&#39;s Home for Destitute and Aged Women was incorporated by an act of the Connecticut State Assembly on June 22, 1865. For twenty-seven years the home was conducted in an old house on the southwest corner of Court and Pearl Street. in 1892 a large legacy enabled a new home to be erected at the present site at Pearl and Lincoln Streets. Comfortable quarters are provided for fourteen women. Members of the Church of the Holy Trinity played a large part in establishing the endowment; frequently the current rector of that church serves as president of the Board of Trustees.</p><br>
<p>The substantial brick building looks like a carefully designed apartment house, rather than an institution. At three-and-a-half stories tall, the f3.7irst floor is partly below ground level. A long run of brownstone steps leads to a center entrance door on the second floor level. Two bay window piers flank the front entrance, capped off above the roof line by gable-roofed dormers. Decorative elements such as the wrought iron fence, ivy on the facade, and quoin-like brick projections on all corners add a picturesque quality to the building.</p><br>
<p>The large brick institutional building dominates the area by its mass and corner siting at Pearl and Lincoln Streets in Middletown&#39;s residential North End. It forms a dividing line between large structures to the south towards Washington Street and more modest late Victorian era worker homes to the north.</p><br>
<p>The Corydon Historic District is a national historic district located in Corydon, Indiana, United States. The town of Corydon is also known as Indianas First State Capital and as Historic Corydon. The district was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1973, but the listing was amended in 1988 to expand the districts geographical boundaries and include additional sites. The district includes numerous historical structures, most notably the Old Capitol , the Old Treasury Building , Governor Hendricks&#39; Headquarters, the Constitution Elm Memorial, the Posey House, the Kintner-McGrain House , and The Kintner House Inn, as well as other residential and commercial sites.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Corydon, Indiana, which was platted in 1808, continues to serve as the county seat of government for Harrison County, Indiana. The town served as the second capital of the Indiana Territory from 1813 to 1816, but it is best known for its service as the first capital of Indiana from 1816 to 1825. Some of the most significant structures within the historic district date from this early period of the town&#39;s history, including the Old Capitol, the centerpiece of the district.</p><br>
<p>Corydon became the seat of government for the Indiana Territory when the territorial capital was moved from Vincennes, in Knox County, shortly after the outbreak of the War of 1812. Dennis Pennington, a Harrison County representative and the speaker of the territorial legislatures lower house, helped secure Corydons selection as the capital by pointing out that the Harrison County Courthouse, which the county government planned to build on Corydon&#39;s public square, could be used as an assembly building for the territorial legislature. Pennington was awarded the contract to supervise construction of the courthouse, which became known as the Old Capitol.</p><br>
<p>In addition to its role as the capitol of the Indiana Territory, Corydon served as the site of a constitutional convention to consider statehood for Indiana in 1816. Forty-three delegates convened from June 10 to June 29, 1816, to draft Indiana&#39;s first state constitution. Sources disagree on the exact location of the gathering. Because the courthouse was not completed at that time, the delegates met at "the courthouse on the hill," which may have referred to a nearby log home that the territorial government had rented.</p><br>
<p>The Indiana General Assembly met for the first time at Corydon under the new constitution and state government on November 4, 1816, and Indiana was admitted as the nineteenth state in the Union on December 11, 1816. Corydon served as the first state capital of Indiana from 1816 to 1825, when the seat of state government was moved to Indianapolis.</p><br>
<p>When the historic district was first added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1973, the area encompassed eight sites that existed when Corydon became the capital of Indiana in 1816. These include the Old Capitol building (Harrison County Courthouse), along with the public square surrounding it, Indianas first state office building (also known as the Old Treasury Building), Governor William Hendricks Headquarters, the Constitution Elm, the Posey House, the Westfall House, the Branham home/tavern, and the Kintner-McGrain House (named Cedar Glade).</p><br>
<p>In 1989 the district was extended to Indian Creek in the north and west, east to College Avenue, and south to Little Indian Creek to include additional historic structures. The districts period of significance spans from 1808 to 1929. The districts boundary increase encompassed the eight structures from its early era as a territorial and state capital, as well as commercial and residential buildings constructed after 1825, including a new, three-story county Harrison County Courthouse that was completed in 1929.</p><br>
<p>A historical marker erected on the Harrison County Courthouse lawn denotes the towns surrender to Confederate Brigadier General John Hunt Morgans raiders following the Battle of Corydon on July 9, 1863. The battle site, which is located outside of town, is listed separately on the National Register. The districts courthouse square also includes a memorial to the late Indiana governor Frank OBannon; his father, Robert P. Ocannon; and grandfather, Lew Ocannon, all of whom were prominent in Corydon. Plans for the OBannon memorial on the southwest corner of the courthouse square were announced on May 22, 2007. It includes a lifesize bronze statue of Frank OBannon sitting on a limestone bench and three pillars honoring the O&#39;Bannons. The memorial, which cost $200,000, was dedicated in June 2008. Because of its history as a territorial and state capital, Corydon sees an estimated 30,000 visitors each year.</p><br>
<h2>Notable sites</h2><br>
<h3>Old Capitol</h3><br>
<p>The Old Capitol building, a part of the Corydon Capital State Historic Site, is administered by the Indiana State Museum and Historic Sites. The two-story, Federal-style, limestone building served as Indianas first state capitol from 1816 until 1825. The building was primarily used as an assembly building for the territorial and state legislatures, but the county government and district courts occasionally used it when the Indiana General Assembly was not in session. Dennis Pennington, who became the states first speaker of the Indiana Senate after statehood in 1816, supervised its construction.</p><br>
<p>The two-story building is forty feet square with walls 2.5 ft thick. The exposed exterior of the building is not dressed, using only stones that were cut roughly square. The foundation, dug 3 ft into the ground, is also 2.5 ft thick. The lower level has 15 ft ceilings, flagstone floors, and a barn rail made from hewn timber. The upper floor&#39;s ceiling is 10 ft tall. The original building had a scale and balance on the roof as the symbol of justice, but they were removed in 1833 and replaced with a large bell. The construction cost of original building was approximately $3,000. Two large chimneys that accommodated the four fireplaces installed in both the upper and lower levels were closed up during later renovations. A wood floor covered the original flagstone floor.</p><br>
<p>When Corydon became the state capital of Indiana in 1816, the Old Capitol building served as the seat of state government. The Indiana Supreme Court and the Indiana Senate were located on the upper level; the Indiana House of Representatives met on the first floor. After 1825, when the state capital was moved to Indianapolis, the Old Captol building continued to be used as the Harrison County Courthouse and county government office building until 1929, when a new county courthouse was completed.</p><br>
<p>In 1917 the State of Indiana purchased the Old Capitol building with the intention of preserving it. The restored building opened in 1929 and has since been preserved and protected as a memorial. The Old Capitol, sometimes referred to as the Corydon Capitol, was included within the original boundaries of the Corydon Historic District when it was listed on the National Register in 1973. The building has been restored as closely as possible to its original appearance, including furniture and paint colors. In 2015 a major restoration project was completed on the town square to protect the Old Capitol building from water damage, update the electrical system and landscaping, and to install new walkways.</p><br>
<h3>First state office building</h3><br>
<p>The first state office building, which dates from 1817, is also known as the Old Treasury Building. It housed state government offices, including the first state auditors and treasurers offices. The building was included in the initial historic district designation. It is located on Walnut Street, east of the Governors Hendricks Headquarters. The Indiana State Museum and Historic Sites Corporation began a major rehabilitation of this building in 2008.</p><br>
<h3>Governor Hendricks's Headquarters</h3><br>
<p>Governor Hendrickss Headquarters is also part of the Corydon Capitol State Historic Site. Davis Floyd, a former treasurer and auditor of the Indiana Territory and a delegate to the constitutional convention in 1816, built the residence in 1817, when he was an Indiana state legislator. After Floyd lost the home during the financial Panic of 1819, the state government purchased it to house the Indianas governor. It opening as a state historic site in 1979.</p><br>
<p>William Hendricks occupied the building from 1822 to 1825, when he was governor of InIndiana. Hendricks was Indiana&#39;s first state representative to USA House of Representatives in 1816 and later served in the USA Senate. William A. Porter, a lawyer, judge, and politician, purchased the building in 1841. Judge Porter served in the Indiana legislature was speaker of Indiana House in 1847–48.</p><br>
<h3>Constitution Elm Memorial</h3><br>
<p>The Constitution Elm commemorates the first state constitutional convention that was held from June 10 to June 29, 1816, when forty-three delegates convened at Corydon to discuss statehood for the territory and draft a state constitution for Indiana. The cramped conditions of the log cabin where the constitution convention was held, along with the summer heat, caused the delegates to gather outdoors under the branches of a nearby elm tree, which was later memorialized as the Constitution Elm. It has been estimated that the giant elm was 50 ft tall with a trunk that measured 5 ft across and branches that spread more than 132 ft. Dutch elm disease destroyed the tree in 1925; however, the trunk has been preserved. It is protected by a sandstone memorial.</p><br>
<h3>Posey house</h3><br>
<p>The Posey home was included in the district&#39;s original National Register designation in 1973.</p><br>
<p>The majority of the two-story brick home was built between 1817 and 1818. It was constructed in three stages: the main house; a wing used as offices, a store, and a cabinet shop; and a two-story ell at the rear of the home that housed a dining room, kitchen, pantry, smokehouse, and woodshed. Servant quarters were located on the ell&#39;s second floor. The rear of the property included woods and a spring, as well as several outbuildings. A portion of the home was later demolished.</p><br>
<p>The property passed through several owners until the Daughters of the American Revolution acquired it in 1925</p><br>
<p>and operated it as a local history museum through 1999. The Posey home was acquired by the State of Indiana in 2000, but it remained vacant until it was donated to the Historical Society of Harrison County in 2012.</p><br>
<h3>Westfall house</h3><br>
<p>The Westfall House, a log cabin located near the Constitution Elm, is the oldest extant building in Corydon. The home is privately owned and not open to the public.</p><br>
<h3>Branham home/tavern</h3><br>
<p>William Branham began operating a tavern on the site in 1809 in a structure originally built in 1800.</p><br>
<h3>Kintner-McGrain house</h3><br>
<p>Originally known as Cedar Glade, the Kintner-McGrain House was the home of Jacob Kintner, who built the Greek Revival-style residence in 1808 near Indian Creek. Kintner&#39;s heirs sold the property in 1849 to Thomas McGrain Sr.</p><br>
<h3>Kintner House Hotel</h3><br>
<p>The Kintner House Hotel, completed in 1873, originally had twenty-six rooms for guests on its upper floor. It was converted to apartments in the early twentieth century and was used for other commercial purposes until it was renovated into a bed and breakfast inn in 1986–87. The property, which is located within the district, was listed separately on the National Register in 1987.</p><br>
<h3>Harrison County Courthouse</h3><br>
<p>The three-story county Harrison County Courthouse, which is located next to the Old Capitol, was completed in 1929.</p><br>
<h3>Grand Masonic Lodge</h3><br>
<p>The Grand Masonic Lodge first organized in 1817 under the Grand Lodge of Kentucky; the Grand Lodge of Indiana organized in Madison in 1818. It is the oldest Masonic Lodge building in Indiana. Its founding members included State Senator Dennis Pennington; Indiana first governor Jonathan Jennings; State Representative Davis Floyd, and USA Congressman William Hendricks, among others. The present-day lodge building on Elm Street was erected in 1926.</p><br>
<p>It is still used by Masons and the Order of the Eastern Star.</p><br>
<h3>Leora Brown School</h3><br>
<p>Construction on the school, which was originally known as the Corydon Colored School, began in 1891. It served as a primary and secondary school for the communitys black students. The first graduation of high school students from the school occurred on May 14, 1897. In 1949 the Indiana General Assembly passed an act to desegregate Indianas public schools by 1954. The Corydon Colored School closed in 1950, when the Corydon public schools were racially integrated, beginning in the 1950–51 school year. In 1987 the school was renamed for Leora Brown Farrow, the school&#39;s longest serving-teacher, who taught at school from 1924 until 1950.</p><br>
<p>The school is located at the corner of Summit and Hill Streets, a block east of the districts amended boundary line that was established as part of the National Register listing in 1989. Although the school was added to Indianas Register of Historic Places in 1992 and is recognized with a state historical marker, it is not listed as a separate property in the National Register as of 2016. The building was converted to a cultural center in 1993.</p><br>
<p>The Kintner–Withers House, also known as Cedar Farm, is on the National Register of Historic Places, south of Laconia, Indiana, along the Ohio River in Boone Township, Harrison County, Indiana. Jacob Kintner, aided by his wife Elizabeth, built the structure in 1837. It is one of only 2 "antebellum plantation-style" complexes known to remain in Indiana, comprised originally on 600 acre of land . It is believed that Kintner was inspired to build this after sailing on the Mississippi River to New Orleans.</p><br>
<p>Besides the Classic-Revival mail house with four front and two rear Roman Doric columns 2&#39;9" in diameter, the property also has barns for livestock and tobacco, a cookhouse, icehouse, underground milkhouse, schoolhouse (built 1850), and tenant housing for sharecroppers. There were two landings onto the Ohio River.</p><br>
<p>The Ohio River flood of 1937 reached the ceiling of the ground floor. The next highest flood of the area, in 1997, came within 30 ft of the building.</p><br>
<p>Preservationists William and Gayle Cook bought the farm from Kintner&#39;s descendants in 1984 after the last full-time resident of the house, Julia Kinter Withers, the granddaughter of Jacob Kintner, died in 1980 at the age of 92. Later that year they hired Pritchett Brothers Inc. of Bedford, Indiana to begin restoration of the farm. The house is painted light yellow with white trim and green shutters based on an 1898 painting by Indianapolis Artist William Forsyth. In 2003 the smokehouse was rebuilt.</p><br>
<p>It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1980.</p><br>
<p>The Samuel Wadsworth Russell House is a historic house at 350 High Street in Middletown, Connecticut. It was built in 1828 to a design by the noted architect Ithiel Town, and is described as one of the finest Greek Revival mansions in the northeastern United States. It is further notable for Town&#39;s client, Samuel Wadsworth Russell , the founder of Russell & Company, the largest and most important American firm to do business in the China trade in the 19th century. In 1970, it was listed on the National Register of Historic Places, and it was declared a National Historic Landmark in 2001. It is now owned by Wesleyan University and houses the Department of Philosophy.</p><br>
<h2>Description and significance</h2><br>
<p>This building was erected in 1828 for Samuel Russell (1789–1862). Russell founded the trading firm of Russell & Company in Canton, China after serving there as trading representative of the Providence, Rhode Island firm of Edward Carrington & Company. Between 1818 and 1831 Russell&#39;s fortune was made in the illegal yet highly profitable importation of Turkish and Bengal opium into the port of Canton and the exportation of fine teas and silks from there to Europe and the United States. In 1828 when his house was built Russell was in Canton, and his friend Samuel D. Hubbard worked with Mrs. Russell to supervise the building of the house. In 1831 Russell returned to Middletown and his new home where he resided until his death in 1862.</p><br>
<p>The Russell House was designed by Ithiel Town, one of the period&#39;s foremost architects and major proponent of the Greek Revival style in America. David Hoadley (of Curtis and Hoadley), a prominent New Haven builder-architect, superintended the construction. The house has the form of a Greek temple with six full height Corinthian columns supporting a heavy entablature and low flushboarded pediment. The front (west) wall has five bays with recessed panels between the first and second story windows except in the center bay, where pilasters support a high entablature over the double entrance door. This doorway is surrounded by side and overlights whose frames are decorated with fretwork. The windows on the two-bay side facades are separated vertically by panels like those on the front. Stucco scribed to resemble large block ashlar covers the brick masonry walls. The house has a brownstone foundation supported by load bearing masonry walls and a gable roof.</p><br>
<p>An antemion decorative motif is used on the portico column capitals, front corner pilasters, and in the attic window screen covers. The heavy entablature has three bands in the architrave; a band of foliated molding under the plain frieze; and a denticulated cornice defined by a bead and reel molding and an elaborate crown molding. Around 1855 the rear portico was enclosed and is now divided by six pilasters (originally square pillars) into five bays of windows with small protruding balconies in the end bays. A two story north wing, added around 1855, is attributed to Alexander Jackson Davis, a former partner of Ithiel Town. Although not consistent with the symmetry of the whole, it is treated sympathetically through the use of identical pilasters and entablature.</p><br>
<p>The Russell estate occupied all of the block bounded by High, Court, Pearl and Washington Streets. Extensive grounds behind Russell House sloping down to Pearl Street were planted with formal gardens which included boxwood imported from England and plants brought from China by Samuel Russell. A double stair of intricate ironwork was added to the rear of the house at the time the portico was enclosed. It leads from the first floor down to the garden lawn.</p><br>
<p>The interior is divided by a spacious center hall with two rooms on either side. A stairway with landing is at the end of the hall. The four chimney stacks are placed in the outside wall of each of the rooms off the hall. The south parlors communicate through a set of folding doors, while the original north rooms have been opened up to provide a single large space.</p><br>
<p>Close attention to detail characterizes the decorative treatment throughout the interior. Trompe l&#39;oeil wall paintings simulate panelling on the walls of the north main rooms, entrance hall, and stairwell. Similarly elaborate decoration is seen in the marble fireplaces with Ionic columns supporting the mantelpieces, and in the recessed panelling of the doors and folding window shutters. A wide frieze and heavy cornice of decorative plaster define the high ceilings of the interior.</p><br>
<p>The Russell House represents a significant stage in the development of Greek Revival architecture in America, In his work Town and Davis, Architects, Roger Hale Newton mentions the Russell House as "indicative of the hand of Town in its undeniable sophistication." Professor Talbot Hamlin places its design "in the richest Greek vein" and also states that "its Corinthian columns and open plan are urban and magnificent rather than in the simple old tradition." Newton elaborates on the latter point when he states that the communicating suite of parlors with their grand scale "may have reflected an urban development quite contrary... to the prevailing modern provincial places." The Russell House demonstrates an early attempt by Ithiel Town to match the sophisticated design of an imposing Greek temple form with a compatible interior plan suited to living and entertaining on a grand scale. This plan was used in Town and Davis&#39; later work in New York, and its successful application to the temple form provided a basis for vernacular interpretations of the Greek Revival style which dominated residential construction until the advent of picturesque architecture.</p><br>
<p>The construction of the Russell House in 1828 established a standard of luxury and elegance for the residential architecture on High Street during the 19th and early 20th centuries. Although many other imposing homes were built in this area of Middletown, the Russell House was never surpassed in sophistication and grandeur. It stands a monument to the personal qualities of Samuel Russell and to the exciting era of the China trade when Russell carried Middletown&#39;s mercantile tradition to its greatest heights.</p><br>
<h2>Relationship to surroundings</h2><br>
<p>The mansion faces west from the southeast corner of High and Washington Streets. The large scale of execution and the imposing qualities of the architecture enable this building to dominate the surrounding area. High Street during the 19th and early 20th centuries was the most prestigious residential area in Middletown. It is now part of the campus of Wesleyan University.</p><br>
<h2>Current use and condition</h2><br>
<p>After remaining in the Russell family for five generations, the house was deeded to Wesleyan in 1937 by Thomas Macdonough Russell, Jr. It was known as Honors College until 1996. The building is currently being used as an events facility and home to the University&#39;s Philosophy department.</p><br>
<p>The Highland Historic District is a USA historic district in Middletown, Connecticut. The district was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1982.</p><br>
<p>The district is an irregular shape that includes, or fronts onto, portions of Atkins Street, Country Club Road, Sawmill Road, and Bell Road. It includes 15 houses, of which 9 are contributing buildings, and it includes a barn that is also a contributing structure. Four of the houses date from the mid- to late 18th century and were the homes of some of the earliest settlers in this part of Middletown. These are typical Georgian style houses, wood frame structure with large central chimneys. Most of the remaining houses are either Federal or Greek Revival in their styling.</p><br>
<p>The Highland neighborhood is representative of the now rare rural character of Middletown.</p><br>
<p>The Sanseer Mill is a historic 19th-century mill at 282 Main Street Extension in Middletown, Connecticut. It was added to the United States National Register of Historic Places in 1986.</p><br>
<h2>Relationship to surroundings</h2><br>
<p>This large brick structure is one of three industrial buildings that share a secluded, well-kept site in South Farms district. Separated from Main Street Extension by trees and undergrowth, the landscaped grounds are behind a row of East Main Street buildings. This, the largest structure, adjoins a brick building south; nearby to the east is a large barn-like structure.</p><br>
<p>Since redeveloped during the 1980s, the address of the complex is 282 Main Street Extension. The previous entrance to East Main Street still exists as an exit.</p><br>
<h2>Significance</h2><br>
<p>This large brick building was constructed probably a short time after the Russell Manufacturing Company obtained the property in 1884. The site, formerly developed by the Sanseer Manufacturing Company, includes a brick building which had been that companys main shop, built in 1845. The Russell Manufacturing Company, established in 1834, produced a great variety of cotton and elastic woven goods. By 1894, it was the nations largest manufacturer of suspenders, employing 900 workers in the companys seven groups of mills. This mill, powered by steam, probably housed weaving looms as did the other two buildings nearby. These structures formed the companys Sanseer Mill complex. In 1937, Philip Bliss purchased the property, which primarily used the property for office and storage space for the P&H Bliss Company.</p><br>
<p>The structure has two dominant vertical elements: a four-story stairwell extends from the middle of one side and a tall rectangular stack stands close by. The main entrance displays a small wooden portico. Its columns and plain entablature, painted white, contrast with the building&#39;s brick walls.</p><br>
<p>This structure, one of the least altered early mills in the area, reflect the substantial development South Farms underwent following the American Civil War. During the late 19th century, the district experienced marked industrial and residential growth, primarily influenced by the success of the Russell Manufacturing Company.</p><br>
<h2>Current Use and Condition</h2><br>
<p>The Sanseer Mill was redeveloped into modern office space in the early 1980s. During the 1990s to 2003, the building was owned by Whitney Garlinghouse, owner of The Garlinghouse Company, an architectural house plan company, which housed its offices in the complex. The old buildings were maintained in original condition at great expense. The property was purchased by Dinar Chaudhury in 2006. Unfortunately, the buildings have fallen into serious disrepair from the elements and neglect.</p><br>
<p>As of 2011, the complex is partially occupied by numerous tenants, including John Conroy, DMD of Conroy Orthodonics, Anthony Onofrio, DMD and Pamela Moore, DMD of Middlesex Dental Associates, Roger Lane, DC of the Middletown Chiropractic Center, Jeffrey Palmer, OD and Dorothy Robison Collins, OD of the Palmer Eyecare Center, New England Residential Services, The Connection and Triple Frog, LLC ( a graphic design firm.</p><br>
<p>The Thea Foss Waterway, formerly the City Waterway, is a north–south inlet of Commencement Bay separating downtown Tacoma, Washington, from the Port of Tacoma.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Tacoma was the site of an early sawmill in 1853.</p><br>
<p>The deepwater port began to boom in the 1870s, sailing</p><br>
<p>ships and steam tugs called in. The Northern Pacific Railroad arrived, by way of the Columbia River in 1874,and the port began to boom (the line via Montana was finished in 1883, but access from California and Nevada did not come till 1891). Tea, wheat lumber, coal, and apples were moved. Trade with Asia exploded. A through railway line was built across the Cascade mountains at Stampede Pass in 1890s and Tacoma began is longtime rivalry with its upstart neighbor 25 miles to the north.</p><br>
<p>Thea Foss, the waterway&#39;s namesake, founded the Foss Maritime Company on the inlet in 1889. She expanded</p><br>
<p>with rowboats, naptha launches and steam tugs. Foss Tug became the pre-eminent towing company in Puget Sound. Today Foss is the largest tug concern on the Pacific Coast.</p><br>
<p>Initially, the railroads owned the foreshore, as they continue to do till this day. But the City Fathers of Tacoma saw the need to wrest control of the land and</p><br>
<p>build the port. In 1919, the Port of Tacoma was established to capture Panama Canal Traffic, and the</p><br>
<p>sprawling port was expanded into the river delta.</p><br>
<p>Another major railroad arrived--the Milwaukee Road, and it brought further trade.</p><br>
<p>Sawmills, cedar shingle mills, boat yards, wharves, graneries</p><br>
<p>and warehouses proliferated in the area. Railroad yards extended on</p><br>
<p>the flat foreshore. Fishworks, and processing plants were set up on the shore.</p><br>
<h2>Cleanup and redevelopment</h2><br>
<p>101 years ago, the Thea Foss Waterway was a thriving industrial center. Industry began to dwindle in the area, and by 1981, the Thea Foss Waterway was almost entirely abandoned. In 1983, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) listed the Thea Foss and Wheeler-Osgood waterways as part of the larger 12 acre Commencement Bay Superfund site. The final cap from the Superfund cleanup action on the Thea Foss Waterway occurred back in February 2006.</p><br>
<p>As of 2010, planned development is underway along the waterway. When complete, the new development will feature parks, residential areas, and office space. A public esplanade will run along the length of the waterway. 7 of the 15 development sites are either constructed or have specific plans for redevelopment. The project is overseen by the Foss Waterway Development Authority Board (FWDA).</p><br>
<p>Local leaders see the Thea Foss Waterway as an economic opportunity, and seek to restore it to the commercial hub that it once was.</p><br>
<p>The Seth Wetmore House is a residence built in the Center-Hall Colonial style in 1746 at 1066 Washington Street, Middletown, Connecticut.</p><br>
<p>It was built of Clapboard siding, Brownstone foundation with asphalt shingle roof using a structural system of wood frame, post and beam with gable roof. It was added to the National Register of Historic Places on September 10, 1970.</p><br>
<h2>Relationship to Surroundings</h2><br>
<p>This center-hall Colonial house faces east from the northwest corner of Washington Street Extension and Camp Street. From this site on the east slope of a ridge it commands a long view east. Although Washington Street Extension psses close by on the southwest, the house is obscured from view by thickly planted trees.</p><br>
<h2>Significance</h2><br>
<p>Judge Seth Wetmore (1700–1788) built this house in 1746. Judge Wetmore served as deputy to the General Assembly for forty-eight terms, and was Judge of the County Court at Hartford. No doubt one of the great local mansions of its day, it remains Middletown&#39;s best example of high style Georgian architecture. the interior is of exceptional sophistication in its appointments; the northeast parlor alone is justly famous for the high quality of its decoration. It displays in original condition a corner shell cupboard with sun-burst decoration; marbleized fluted pilasters at either side of the fireplace opening, and fine overmantel painting. The woodwork in this room is in its original condition and excellently preserved.</p><br>
<p>Although the builder of this house is unknown, it is evident that he was a master joiner. A house recorded in a Colonial Dames monograph (William Cooper House, destroyed 1930d) bears such marked similarities to this house that it is likely they were built by the same man.</p><br>
<p>This house remained in the Wetmore family for over two hundred years, and there are many traditions concerning the house including visits by Jonathan Edwards, Timothy Dwight IV, Aaron Burr and General Lafayette. A large hemlock on the property is said to have been planted by Judge Wetmore&#39;s daughter Lucy.</p><br>
<p>The Judge Seth Wetmore House is significant for its long association with the Wetmore family and as Middletown&#39;s finest example of Georgian Colonial architecture.</p><br>
<p>Public Square is an open mall that lies in the center of Watertown, New York. The square is listed as Public Square Historic District on the National Register of Historic Places, encompassing 58 contributing buildings, one contributing site, and three contributing objects.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>The square is rectangular in shape. Buildings line all four sides of the square, while a large oval park sits in its center. A one-way traffic pattern circles the park. Seven of Watertown&#39;s main streets (including USA Route 11, New York State Route 3, New York State Route 12, and New York State Route 283) intersect at the square, making it a heavy traffic destination for motorists.</p><br>
<p>While the square boasts some modern architecture, its main character is defined by the numerous 19th- and early 20th-century buildings that still stand. Throughout its buildings, the square is host to a multitude of shops, restaurants, business offices, churches and apartment houses, making it a major shopping and business destination in the city.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Watertowns first settlers built their homesteads on what is now the squares West End in 1800. In 1805, several settlers donated land for public use which became the basis of the square. This helped to develop the square as Watertown&#39;s main business district. The current layout of the square and its surrounding streets developed in those early years.</p><br>
<p>In 1849, most of Public Square and buildings on three adjacent streets were destroyed by fire. The square was immediately rebuilt. Several buildings erected during the rebuilding still stand. In the rebuilding of the 1850s, the city created three parks at the squares center, with a fountain inside the center park. During Watertowns industrial boom in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Public Square became the heart of Watertowns retail, business and social life. In the 1950s, the three parks in the squares center were combined into one large park.</p><br>
<p>The squares retail and business dominance started declining in the latter half of the 20th century. Urban renewal policies during the 1960s and 1970s resulted in the demolition of some of the squares historic structures. Declining industry hurt Watertowns once prospering economy. Although nearby the Fort Drum military reservation expanded in the 1980s and brought growth to the Watertown, modern shopping malls and retail chains built on the citys west side drew business away from the square. Public Squares days as the citys main retail destination were at an end. The square continued its slow decline over the next 20 years.</p><br>
<h2>Today</h2><br>
<p>The beginning of the 21st century saw a reversal in attitudes towards Public Square. With a resurgence of pride in the square and its role in Watertowns history, civic and business leaders have taken a strong role in its redevelopment. Existing buildings were refurbished and new businesses moved in. Some decaying structures beyond repair were demolished. In 2006, the new economic development was coupled with a multimillion-dollar streetscape project to reinforce the squares infrastructure, as well as beautify its roads, walkways and landscaping. This project was completed in November, 2008.</p><br>
<h2>Public Square notables</h2><br>
<p>Public Square has been the site of many notable people, buildings and inventions.</p><br>
<p>Noted sculptor Augustus Saint-Gaudens designed the monument to New York Governor Roswell P. Flower in 1902. It is the visual focal point of lower Washington Street.</p><br>
<p>Public Square is home to the Paddock Arcade. Built in 1850, the Arcade boasts to be the oldest continuously operating covered mall in the United States. It is listed separately on the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<p>Abolitionist Frederick Douglass spoke at Washington Hall and was a guest at the squares renowned Woodruff Hotel in the 1850s. He is noted for insisting on using the front entrance and eating in the hotels public dining room. Worried about local prejudices, the hotel managers had wanted him to use a rear entrance and stay away from the public areas.</p><br>
<p>Frank Winfield Woolworth worked as a clerk in Smith and Moore&#39;s department store on Public Square in the 1870s. He came up with the idea to set up a table of discount merchandise and fix the price of the items at five and ten cents apiece. So successful were the sales that he was inspired to start his own store based on the same idea. He opened his first store in Utica, NY, starting the Woolworths chain of department stores.</p><br>
<p>Julius Sämann invented the Little Trees car air freshener in the Electric Building on Public Square in the 1950s. These car air fresheners resemble small pine trees and hang from an automobile&#39;s rearview mirror, and are known worldwide. Car Freshner Corporation maintains its corporate headquarters and a manufacturing plant in Watertown, while it has expanded to include factories in several other cities around the United States.</p><br>
<p>The Lovell Beach House is located on the Balboa Peninsula in Newport Beach, California. The building was completed in 1926 and is now recognized as one of the most important works by architect Rudolf Schindler, second only to the Schindler House, built four years earlier for his family as a show house and studio. Both of these early houses by Schindler are considered landmarks of early modern architecture in America.</p><br>
<p>The residence is on the ocean front, not far from The Wedge at Newport Harbor, in a tightly packed neighborhood of buildings. The house is sheltered from the street on the west side by raising the living quarters above the ground level. The open space below reveals the reinforced concrete frames that were formed in the shape of a figure 8. Two stairways pass through the openings in the frames leading to the kitchen and the main entry. The garage is on the north side of the ground floor and the garden is on the south side, between the house and the beach.</p><br>
<p>The interior is arranged around a two-story living/dining room, with full height, curtain wall windows on the east and south side facing the ocean. The kitchen and breakfast area are located on the north side of the first floor, with a terrace on the ocean side over the garden. Lamps and built-in furniture were provided as part of the original design. Bedrooms on the second floor are connected by a corridor overlooking the main living room. Each of the bedrooms originally had access to an open sleeping porch, but these were enclosed by Schindler in 1928.</p><br>
<h2>Context</h2><br>
<p>The client for the project, Philip M. Lovell, was inspired by a style of healthy living, with guidelines for proper diet and exercise. Schindler also adopted these principles and addressed these concerns in the design of the beach house. The arrangement of the living quarters on the north side of the house maximizes the circulation of fresh air. Each bedroom is furnished with windows for cross ventilation to eliminate the need for air conditioning.</p><br>
<p>Lovell also commissioned another house in Los Angeles. The Lovell "Health House" was completed in 1929 on Dundee Drive in Los Angeles, three years after the Beach House was finished. This commission was awarded to Richard Neutra, who was living with his wife in a part of Schindler&#39;s House and studio between 1926 and 1930. These two architects created houses that became classic forms of the new California residential design, and icons of the Modern movement in America.</p><br>
<h2>Historic significance</h2><br>
<p>The Los Angeles branch of the Historic American Buildings Survey (HABS) documented the house in 1968. The house today has much the same appearance as the photographs taken during the survey. The significance of the house was already apparent at the time:</p><br>
<p>The Lovell Beach House is generally considered one of the greatest works of pioneering modern architect, R. M. Schindler. It demonstrates an early use of concrete which predates and predicts the post-war Brutalist style, in which concrete is left unsurfaced, and structure is distinct from enclosure.</p><br>
<p>... The house is lifted above its beach site and cradled in five concrete frames in the shape of figure 8&#39;s. These were poured in place. The enclosed areas were shop-fabricated and hoisted into position. The play of forms in the advancing and receding planes are related to the De Stijl movement begun in the Netherlands in 1917.</p><br>
<p>The Beach House was listed as a Registered Historic Place in California on February 5, 1974.</p><br>
<p>The Prince Hall Mystic Cemetery, also known as the Prince Hall Cemetery, is a historic cemetery located on Gardner Street, Arlington, Massachusetts. It is said to be the only remaining African American Masonic cemetery in the United States.</p><br>
<p>The cemetery is a burial place for members of the Prince Hall Grand Lodge F & AM, founded by Prince Hall in Boston in 1776. Prince Hall Freemasonry was the first African American Masonic group in the United States. In 1864, Grand Master William B. Kendall deeded this site to his lodge. The cemetery was dedicated in 1868, and put in trust to be used exclusively as a Prince Hall Freemasonry burial ground. Records indicate it was in use until about 1897 when it fell into disuse.</p><br>
<p>As time passed it was forgotten until its rediscovery in 1987. It was rededicated in 1990, and added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1998. Today the cemetery is the last extant cemetery associated with Prince Hall Masons. It contains a small park with a monument. A 1988 survey found remains of the original gate and an obelisk.</p><br>
<h2>Current use</h2><br>
<p>Beginning in 1990, Masons from the Prince Hall Grand Lodge have held an annual ceremony on Memorial Day. This features remarks by the Grand Matron and other Masonic representatives and has frequently included an address by the president of the Arlington Historical Society.</p><br>
<p>Mardale Ill Bell is a fell in the English Lake District, rising to the south west of Haweswater Reservoir. It stands on the watershed between Mardale and Kentmere and is the highpoint of the south-eastern ridge of High Street, midway on its course to Harter Fell.</p><br>
<h2>Topography</h2><br>
<p>The head of the Kentmere valley lies to the south-west of the fell with rough slopes leading down over scree to Kentmere Reservoir. Mardale Ill Bell sends out a short grass-topped spur, Lingmell End, which splits the head of the valley into two.</p><br>
<p>The north-eastern face of Mardale Ill Bell forms the craggy backdrop to Blea Water. This perfect corrie tarn is the deepest in the Lake District at 207 ft. Its outflow feeds Haweswater, joining with that of a second tarn, Small Water. Between the two, Mardale Ill Bell throws out the rocky spur of Piot Crag. Two tiers of crag drop down to the confluence at Mardale Waters.</p><br>
<p>South-east of the summit a rough narrowing ridge drops to Nan Bield Pass at 2,100 ft, before rising again over rocky steps to Harter Fell. Nan Bield was the ancient trading route between Kentmere and the now drowned village of Mardale Green, submerged by the raising of Haweswater in the 1940s. Near the shore of Small Water on the descending path are a number of stone shelters, pointers to the earlier importance of the pass. These each provide refuge for one person in extremis, entrance being via crawling.</p><br>
<p>North-west from Mardale Ill Bell the grassy ridge crosses a wet depression and then expands into a wide plateau, triangular in plan. High Street and Thornthwaite Crag are at the other two corners, with the Roman road crossing north to south.</p><br>
<h2>Summit</h2><br>
<p>The summit has two large cairns on grass, the northern one being the top. The view westwards is confined by higher fells but the Ill Bell ridge and Coniston range are seen to good effect. Blea Water and Small Water can be brought into sight from the rim of the crags.</p><br>
<h2>Ascents</h2><br>
<p>The most popular routes of ascent are on the Mardale side. From the road end Nan Bield pass can be used, or the impressive scenery of Piot Crag can be attained from the shore of either Blea or Small Water. From Kentmere, Nan Bield provides the obvious route, although a pathless climb up to the top of Lingmell End is possible.</p><br>
<p>Yumen Pass, or Jade Gate or Pass of the Jade Gate, is the name of a pass of the Great Wall located west of Dunhuang in today&#39;s Gansu Province of China. During the Han dynasty , this was a pass through which the Silk Road passed, and was the one road connecting Central Asia and China, the former called the Western Regions. Just to the south was the Yangguan pass, which was also an important point on the Silk Road.</p><br>
<p>Although the Chinese guan is usually translated simply as "pass", its more specific meaning is a "frontier pass" to distinguish it from an ordinary pass through the mountains. Yumen guan 玉門關 and Yang guan 陽關 are derived from: yu 玉=jade + men 門=gate, door; and yang 陽=sunny side, south side of a hill, north side of a river, and guan 關=‘frontier-passes’. These were the two most famous passes leading to the north and west from Chinese territory. During the Early Han, "... a defensive line was established from Jiuquan (Wine Springs) in the Gansu Corridor west to the Jade Gate Pass at its end."</p><br>
<p>It is not to be confused with the city Yumen (玉門, literally Jade Gate) in Gansu, China. Although both are within the same Jiuquan "prefecture-level city" (a multi-county administrative unit) of Gansu province, Yumen Pass is located some 400 km to the west of its namesake city.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h2>Footnotes</h2><br>
<p>Wahwashkesh Lake is a lake in Whitestone, Parry Sound District, Ontario, Canada, and is the largest lake in Parry Sound District, with a surface area of 1,721 hectares  and over 106 km of shoreline. Approximately 30% of the shoreline property is Crown Land. The lake has two distinct basins:  the north basin or Top Lake is the smaller of the two, and  the south basin is the Big Lake. Wahwashkesh is part of the Magnetawan River system, and the lake is renowned for an extremely severe spring freshet with the lake levels often rising 3 to 4 meters above the concrete weir at the outlet of the river.</p><br>
<p>The lake has a diverse fishery with over 12 species of sport fish, including Northern Pike, Walleye, Smallmouth, and Largemouth Bass. In addition, Wahwashkesh is famous for its Atlantic Coastal Plain Flora. The lake ranks in the top five of all lakes in Ontario for such flora, which the Natural Heritage League and the World Wildlife Fund documented extensively in a 1989 study.</p><br>
<p>Wahwashkesh is from Ojibwa wâwâshkeshi deer.</p><br>
<p>Established in 1954, the is a not-for-profit association of cottagers and residents on Lake Wahwashkesh, Ontario, Canada. In May 2009, the Association in partnership with the Ministry of Natural Resources installed a new water level monitoring station in Bennetts Bay, to provide direct information on a continuous basis. The provides real time daily data on the lakes water level, water temperature, air temperature, and rainfall amount.</p><br>
<p>Ylläs, or Yllästunturi in Finnish, is a 718 m high fell in the municipality of Kolari in Lapland Province of Finland. There are two villages near Ylläs: Äkäslompolo on the north side and Ylläsjärvi in the south. They are connected by an 11 km road, around the side of the fell. Both villages derive much of their income from tourism.</p><br>
<p>Ylläs is a popular cross country and downhill skiing centre. The area&#39;s marketing slogan is "Ylläs on ykkönen!" (Finnish for "Ylläs is number one!").</p><br>
<p>Ylläs is the second largest ski resort in Lapland, after Levi.</p><br>
<p>Many companies in the vicinity of Ylläs have taken the fell&#39;s name as part of their own, such as the Ylläksen Nousu sports club in Äkäslompolo.</p><br>
<p>Ylläs is the highest fell in Finland where you can find skiing lifts.</p><br>
<p>In the Ylläs area there are:</p><br>
<p>330 km cross-country skiing tracks, 38 km of which are lit</p><br>
<p>61 ski slopes</p><br>
<p>29 ski lifts</p><br>
<p>Other fells near Ylläs are Kukastunturi, Lainiotunturi, Kuertunturi, Kesänki, Pyhätunturi and Aakenustunturi.</p><br>
<p>The nearest railway station is at Kolari and the nearest airport is Kittilä Airport.</p><br>
<p>Ylläs was the host of the thirteenth 1995 Winter Deaflympics.</p><br>
<p>Ylläs is also a popular tourist destination during the summer months with activities such as hiking, biking, fishing and canoeing all available for visitors to enjoy. The gondola is open during the summer season making it easy to reach the top of the fell and enjoy the panoramic views.</p><br>
<p>Walpole Island  is a small and uninhabited French island, 180 km east of New Caledonia in the South Pacific. Although it is geographically part of the Loyalty Islands, administratively it belongs to the Isle of Pines municipality of New Caledonia.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>There is evidence that the island had prehistoric inhabitants. Graves, shell and bone tools, as well as stone markers indicate the presence of a permanent population at some point. The island is the topic of several oral traditions from Maré and the Isle des Pines, the two closest inhabited islands. Speculation amongst the overseers of the Guano mining operation suggested that shipwreck or other castaways had also occupied the island. British captain Butler discovered the island in 1794 and named it after his ship Walpole.</p><br>
<p>From 1910 through 1936 guano was mined on the island and about 150,000 tonnes were exported to New Zealand.</p><br>
<p>The island is only visited by scientific naturalist research missions.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>As the easternmost island of the Loyalty Islands arc, Walpole is located 180 km east of New Caledonia (168° 57&#39; E, 22° 36&#39; S). It is 4 km long North-South, and 0.5 - wide with an area of about 2.0 km&sup2;.</p><br>
<p>Walpole is a coral island of volcanic origin. During the last glaciation cycles, the island was submerged and rose several times, creating a coral capping. The island is bordered by eroding cliffs. On the eastern shore is a narrow plain. The island has no source of surface fresh water.</p><br>
<p>Connecticut Valley Hospital in Middletown, Connecticut is a public hospital operated by the state of Connecticut to treat people with mental illness. It was historically known as Connecticut General Hospital for the Insane. It is a 100 acre historic district that was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1985.</p><br>
<p>The historic district includes late 19th and 20th century revival and late Victorian architecture. When listed on the National Register, the district included 27 contributing buildings. Also included were 25 non-contributing buildings. and</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Connecticut Hospital for the Insane was formally opened in Middletown in 1868. Two years earlier, Middletown had granted the site to the State for the establishment of an asylum to accommodate Connecticut&#39;s mentally ill. By 1896, four groups of buildings had been erected and the institution was one of the largest of its kind in the country.</p><br>
<p>The site is still used as a psychiatric care facility, operated by the Department of Mental Health and Addiction Services. The State has indicated that it wishes to demolish up to 24 buildings on the campus.</p><br>
<h2>Facilities</h2><br>
<p>Located in the South Farms district, Connecticut Valley Hospital consists of a large concentration of early and contemporary buildings. The site, landscaped with broad lawns and large shade trees, is at the top of a hill and offers panoramic views of the city. Silver Street and Bow Lane pass thorough the property which is bordered by Eastern Drive, to the west. Small drives, leading from these streets, traverse the property&#39;s grounds.</p><br>
<p>The hospital consists of approximately eighty structures complemented by 650 acre south and east of the main site. It includes large institutional buildings constructed of brick and brownstone, frame and brick residences, and a number of maintenance buildings. The majority of these form a large group centered on Shew Hall. This site contains approximately 200 acres. It comprises many distinctive structures that evidence different periods of the institution&#39;s development.</p><br>
<p>Shew Hall, the original hospital structure, was built in 1867. It functions as the administrative building and is the focal point of the institution. This large structure is named in honor of the hospitals first superintendent, Dr. Abram M. Shew. Designed by Addison Hutton of Philadelphia, it was constructed in the Second Empire style. The building was remodeled in 1939, when the interior was updated and a flat roof bordered by a parapet was installed on the main section. The three large wings display mansard roofs and details that are indicative of the main sections former appearance.</p><br>
<p>Stanley Hall, built around 1879, was also designed in the Second Empire style. It was the hospital&#39;s maximum security facility in prior years. Stanley Hall was dismantled and removed some time after 1999.</p><br>
<p>Woodward Hall, erected around 1886, is in the Queen Anne style. It has an irregular profile that is accentuated by many ells. The structure exhibits multiple roofs capped by numerous chimneys, wide turrets, and large, gabled dormers. The interior has been recently remodeled. The Queen Anne style section of Woodward Hall was torn down in 2007, and there are tentative plans to develop a garden where it once stood. The "newer" section of Woodward Hall (built in the early 20th century at the same time Weeks Hall was built) still stands and houses the geriatric wards.</p><br>
<p>Weeks Hall, built in 1896, was also constructed in the Queen Anne and, in addition, had features that suggested the influence of the Jacobethan Revival. Its appearance, similar to that of Woodward Hall, was highlighted by prominent, steeply pitched gables and floral designs in terra cotta. The interior sections and roofs of the western side of Weeks Hall collapsed in the 21st century, but the exterior walls remained standing until the structure burned on September 21, 2010.</p><br>
<p>Smith Home, constructed about 1909, is designed in the Colonial Revival style. It has a cross-gabled roof crowned by a slender, distinctive tower. The main entrance displays fluted pilasters and a large fan in relief above the door. Currently unoccupied, the structure once housed hospital employees.</p><br>
<p>Other notable early buildings are located on the grounds. The police station, a distinctive cottage, was erected in 1895. Shepherd Home and Russell Hall are two similar structures that were built in the 1920s; they exhibit large, ornate porticoes which are classical in design. There are also a number of small residences, constructed during the late nineteenth century, that have served as living quarters for the staff. Smith Home and Shepard Home once provided housing for nursing staff. Russell Hall once was used as the on-campus medical hospital.</p><br>
<p>This site reflects the history associated with the care and treatment of the mentally ill in Connecticut. The buildings, reminiscent of different eras of the hospital&#39;s past, document its progressive growth and comprise a diverse collection that contributes to the architectural variety of Middletown.</p><br>
<p>The Connecticut Wing Civil Air Patrol Wing Headquarters (NER-CT-001) is located in Beers Hall.</p><br>
<p>The Old Middletown Post Office, in Middletown, Connecticut, also known as the USA Post Office, was built in 1916. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places  in 1982.</p><br>
<h2>Structure</h2><br>
<p>The building is made of limestone using a structurla system of load bearing masonry. It was designed by the Office of the Supervising Architect under James A. Wetmore and built by W. H. Frissell & Co. of New York City.</p><br>
<h2>Relationship to surroundings</h2><br>
<p>This fine, two-story example of the Renaissance Revival style is located on the south west corner of Court and Main Streets facing the Connecticut River. Across Court Street to the north is the massive Liberty Bank building and to its south across a parking lot; is the Bank of America building. Together these three buildings give this section of the central business district a solid and classical look.</p><br>
<h2>Significance</h2><br>
<p>In 1911, the United States Government decided to build a new post office facility in Middletown. Preparations for construction began shortly thereafter. The selection of the buildings location was a topic of much controversy. The government finally chose this location, federally owned since 1841, in the center of Middletowns commercial and financial district.</p><br>
<p>Contemporary sources indicate that the new post office was a source of civic pride for the citizens of Middletown. Its facade of smooth limestone distinguished it in a city center where brick and Portland brownstone were the common building materials. The classical facade displays a two story arrangement of arched windows and pilasters supporting an elaborate entablature. The interior features a large two story open lobby.</p><br>
<p>The old post office ceased operation in 1977, ending 136 years of federal use of that site.</p><br>
<h2>Current use and condition</h2><br>
<p>Liberty Bank uses this building as office space and keeps the building in good condition.</p><br>
<p>Medma or Mesma , was an ancient Greek city of Southern Italy , on the west coast of the Bruttian  peninsula, between Hipponium and the mouth of the Metaurus . The site is located at Rosarno, Province of Reggio Calabria, Calabria.</p><br>
<p>It was a colony founded by the Epizephyrian Locrians, and is said to have derived its name from an adjoining fountain. But though it is repeatedly noticed among the Greek cities in this part of Italy, it does not appear ever to have attained to any great power or importance. It is probable, however, that the Medimnaeans (Μεδιμναῖοι), who are noticed by Diodorus as contributing a body of colonists to the repeopling of Messana (modern Messina) by Dionysius in 396 BCE, are no other than the Medmaeans, and that we should read Μεδμαῖοι in the passage in question. Though never a very conspicuous place, Medma seems to have survived the fall of many other more important cities of Magna Graecia, and it is noticed as a still existing town both by Strabo and Pliny the Elder. But the name is not found in Ptolemy, and all subsequent trace of it disappears. It appears from Strabo that the town itself was situated a little inland, and that it had a port or emporium on the seashore.</p><br>
<p>The name of Mesima is still borne by a river which flows into the sea a little below Nicotera, in the neighbourhood. Nicotera, the name of which is already found in the Antonine Itinerary, probably arose after the decline of Mesma.</p><br>
<p>Lake Chamo  is a lake in the Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples&#39; Region of southern Ethiopia. Located in the Main Ethiopian Rift, it is at an elevation of 1,110 meters. The lake is just to the south of Lake Abaya and the city of Arba Minch, and east of the Guge Mountains.</p><br>
<h2>Overview</h2><br>
<p>Lake Chamo northern end lies in the Nechisar National Park. According to figures published by the Central Statistical Agency, it is 32 kilometers long and 13 wide, with a surface area of 317 square kilometers and a maximum depth of 14 meters with a catchment of about 18757 square kilometers in size. Other sources locate it on an elevation of 1,235 meters with a length of 26 km a widths of 22 km an area of 551 square kilometers a chatchment of 2220 square kilometers and a maximum depth of 10 meters.</p><br>
<p>The lake is fringed with beds of Typha, as well as wetlands. It is fed by the Kulfo River and several small streams, as well as overflow from Lake Abaya brought to it by the Ualo River. Oscar Neumann, exploring the area in 1901, found a dry channel connecting Lake Chamo to the Sagan River, which led him to conclude the lake contributes to the Sagan in years of heavy rainfall.</p><br>
<p>Wildlife include fish like the catfish Bagrus docmak and Nile perch, as well as hippopotamus and Nile crocodiles.</p><br>
<p>The Wilcox, Crittenden Mill, also known as Wilcox, Crittenden Mill Historic District, is a 17 acre property in Middletown, Connecticut that was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1986. It was the location of the Wilcox, Crittenden company, a marine hardware firm. The historic district listing included four contributing buildings and three other contributing sites.</p><br>
<h2>Buildings</h2><br>
<p>The mill complex consists of four surviving mill buildings, built between 1814 and 1917, and foundational remnants of others, as well as two brownstone dams. Mill A, built in 1814 to house weaving operations, was converted into an office when larger facilities were built. Mill B, located to its north, is 247 ft long, and was built between 1901 and 1912. Mill C is a concrete block structure built in 1907, and is 350 ft long. Mill D stands across the ravine of Pamachea Creek from Mill C, and is the youngest of the four buildings.</p><br>
<h2>Relationship to surroundings</h2><br>
<p>This building is sited on the north bank of Pameacha Creek. It is located in a commercial and industrial area and faces the busy intersection of Warwick and South Main Streets. Nearby are related, later factory buildings. A modern solar-energized bank is located across the intersection to the west.</p><br>
<h2>Significance</h2><br>
<p>The main part of this structure was erected in 1814 by John Watkinson as a woolen factory. Pamecha Creek was a prime source of water power in Middletown; a mill had occupied this site since the 1650s. Following Watkinson&#39;s death in 1836, this building was occupied by another woolen business, known as The Pamecha Manufacturing Company.</p><br>
<p>In 1849 William Walter Wilcox, a young and aggressive factory worker, went into business with Ira Penfield, his employer. Together they continued manufacturing Penfields recently patented grommet (a small metal device used in the raising and lowering of sails) in the basement of this building, and established the firm of Penfield and Wilcox. Wilcox then went on the road, successfully selling this new device, and establishing a coast-to-coast reputation. When Penfield retired in 1857, Wilcox took in Joseph Hall Jr. as a partner and the firm known as Wilcox and Hall was established. Hall left the business in 1867. in 1869 the firm acquired the name by which it has been known for over one hundred years, The Wilcox, Crittenden and Company. The firms prominent managers at this time were William Walter Wilcox, Albert R. Crittenden (a former Middletown Mayor), E. Bound Chaffee, and Homer Churchill. This firm brought force and strength to the ships&#39; chandlery business. They constructed additions to the existing structures to meet their rapidly growing needs. Their success was attributed to honesty, paying close attention to the business and having a good understanding of maritime needs.</p><br>
<p>On a summer night in 1907 a devastating fire attacked the premises. Virtually every building and its contents on Pamecha ravine was destroyed, except for a small brick structure and the addition to the south. This determined firm rebuilt within two years, without losing a customer or laying off an employee. Except for this building and a slightly larger and later structure on the south side of the Pamecha Creek, all the structures related to the firm were built after the 1907 fire.</p><br>
<p>This -story brick structure displays some of its early exterior features; brownstone sills and lintels, and two corbelled chimneys. The windows on the west facade were lengthened, the brownstone lintels removed and replaced by segmental-arched brick lintels. The cupola was replaced. The wing, attached to its south wall, probably dates deom the late 19th century. More decorative, it displays corbelled brick work and an unusual arched window on the west facade. A large mural of a clipper ship is painted on the south wall.</p><br>
<p>The Pamecha Creek played an important role in Middletowns early manufacturing operations. The many water-powered factories located on its banks were largely responsible for this citys industrial prosperity in the early nineteenth century. This building is one of the few survivors of that prosperous era.</p><br>
<p>The site is additionally significant as an archeological site. Not only has it been in continuous use since 1650, but documents indicate that much of the machinery and tools damaged in the 1907 fire were not removed from the steep ravine.</p><br>
<h2>Current use and condition</h2><br>
<p>The property has been converted into an apartment building and is in good condition.</p><br>
<p>Plavna  is a village in Serbia. It is situated in the Bač municipality, in the South Bačka District, Vojvodina province. Its population is ethnically mixed and numbering 1,392 people .</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>In Serbian, the village is known as Plavna (Плавна), in Croatian (Šokac) as Plavna, in Hungarian as Palona, and in German as Plawingen.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>It is located 150 km north of Belgrade and 75 km of Novi Sad, the capital of the province of Vojvodina, at the southwest of Bačka.</p><br>
<h2>Ethnic groups (2002 census)</h2><br>
<p>Its population include:</p><br>
<p>607 (43.61%) Serbs</p><br>
<p>312 (22.41%) Croats</p><br>
<p>145 (10.42%) Hungarians</p><br>
<p>112 (8.05%) Yugoslavs</p><br>
<p>others.</p><br>
<p>According to 1991 census, population of the village included 497 Croats, 389 Serbs, 278 Yugoslavs, 196 Hungarians.</p><br>
<h2>Historical population</h2><br>
<p>1961: 2,662</p><br>
<p>1971: 2,033</p><br>
<p>1981: 1,712</p><br>
<p>1991: 1,538</p><br>
<p>2002: 1,392</p><br>
<h2>Tourism</h2><br>
<p>There is a possibility of hunting deer, doe buck, wild boar, as well as hare, pheasant, partridge and wild duck on an area of 600 hectares covered by wheat and corn.</p><br>
<p>Hunting ground Plavna – Lovačka kuća (Houting house) is located in the village of Plavna surrounded by forest. Along with usual hounting activities, it offers the possibility of tours of the hunting ground, photo – safari, observing wild life. Restaurant can receive 100 quests.</p><br>
<h2>Notable inhabitants</h2><br>
<p>Plavna is the birthplace of Antun Gustav Matoš&#39;s father who was Bunjevac.</p><br>
<p>József Novotny (1908–1944), chaiplan, martyr of the Roman Catholic Church, a Hungarian of Czech or Slovak origin.</p><br>
<p>Bálint Magyar de Palona (? - 1573), Hungarian general, captain of Fonyód.</p><br>
<p>Kentmere Pike is a fell in the English Lake District, rising between the valleys of Kentmere and Longsleddale. It is the highpoint on the ridge between Harter Fell and Shipman Knotts.</p><br>
<h2>Topography</h2><br>
<p>The western Kentmere slopes fall over the rough ground of Hallow Bank Quarter to Ullstone Gill, a tributary of the River Kent. Beyond here Smallthwaite Knott, an outlier of Harter Fell, separates Kentmere Pike from the main valley. There is extensive evidence of former quarrying on this flank.</p><br>
<p>By contrast the Longsleddale side wears a rim of crag above the narrow upper course of the River Sprint. Goat Scar, Raven Crag and Brown Crags are the main faces, while Steel Pike appears from the valley bridleway as an independent rocky peak. The remains of the large Wrengill Quarry are just north of here, together with a mine entrance a little higher up the slope.</p><br>
<p>The ridge northwards to Harter Fell drops to a wet depression and then climbs up the grassy ridge, following first the wall and then a broken fence. South-eastwards the ridge continues to the cairned top of Goat Scar, which provides a good viewpoint for the craggy throat of Longsleddale. From here the high ground turns due south to Shipman Knotts.</p><br>
<h2>Summit</h2><br>
<p>The top of the fell is a grassy dome with a stone wall running along the ridge. An Ordnance Survey column stands just to the east of the wall whilst a small summit cairn has been built to the west. Both are of equivalent height. The view of Lakeland is intermittent between the tops on the Ill Bell ridge, the Coniston fells and a portion of the Scafell group being visible. An open vista to the south encompasses Windermere and Morecambe Bay.</p><br>
<h2>Ascents</h2><br>
<p>Kentmere Pike is most commonly climbed indirectly as part of the Kentmere Horseshoe. This circuit takes in the fine ridges on either side of the valley, together with the higher fells at its head. Direct ascents can also be made from either flank. An ancient grooved path rises up the fellside from the end of High Lane in Kentmere, meeting the ridgetop wall to the south of the summit. From Longsleddale the walled track which leads to Gatesgarth Pass can be left just north of Steel Pike. The line of an old fence is then followed to the ridge.</p><br>
<p>Greenway Court is a historic country estate near White Post in rural Clarke County, Virginia. The property is the site of the seat of the vast 18th-century land empire of Thomas Fairfax, 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron , the only ennobled British colonial proprietor to live in one of the North American colonies. The surviving remnants of his complex — a later replacement brick house and Fairfax’s stone land office — were designated a National Historic Landmark in 1960.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>Greenway Court is located down a long private drive on the west side of White Post Road south of the village of White Post. The property now consists of about 5 acre, although it was in the 18th century at the center of landholdings in excess of 5 e6acre. Its principal feature today is a brick farmhouse built in 1828, the original plantation house having been demolished c. 1834. The main historic structure surviving from the period of the Fairfax residency is the Land Office, a c. 1762 single-story gable-roofed limestone structure, and there is also a timber smokehouse dating to the 18th century.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Greenway Court was the center of the "Northern Neck Proprietary" or "Fairfax Grant", which passed to Thomas Fairfax, 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron from his mother&#39;s family, the Culpepers, who had taken proprietorship of the land in 1673. Fairfax laid out the Greenway Court estate in 1747, intending it to be a much larger establishment than it became. The main house was a 1-1/2 story timber structure with long sloping roofs and corbelled brick chimneys. It was originally intended to house the land steward, but it was occupied by Fairfax with his nephew, Thomas Bryan Martin, until his death in 1781. Fairfax employed a young George Washington as a surveyor on his extensive land holdings.</p><br>
<p>Abandoned, the roof of the main house at Greenway Court collapsed in 1834, after which the structure was pulled down.</p><br>
<p>A visit to this estate is the subject of "A Night at Greenway Court," an 1896 short story by Willa Cather.</p><br>
<h2>Unincorporated community</h2><br>
<p>Greenway Court is used as a name to describe an unincorporated community in which the former estate is located.</p><br>
<p>Bird Island is approximately 1,300 acre adjacent to the coastal resort town of Sunset Beach, North Carolina, USA. Sunset Beach is on a barrier island and is the southernmost town in North Carolina. Bird Island can be reached by walking along the seashore toward the South Carolina border. Due to the contour of the Atlantic Coast at this point, the direction of travel to Bird Island is approximately West-Southwest. Previously, Bird Island was separated from Sunset Beach by a tidal creek  that could be easily crossed only at low tide. Accretion of ocean sand  has gradually filled in the tidal creek so that two separate islands became one.</p><br>
<h2>Preservation</h2><br>
<p>Bird Island was privately owned prior to 2002. The shoreline, dunes, and marshland of Bird Island provide important habitat and nesting for species that are endangered, threatened, or of special concern, including the Kemp&#39;s Ridley and Loggerhead sea turtles. Although there was no vehicular access to this land, there was the threat that the land might some day be developed. The state of North Carolina used $4.2 million of public and private funding to purchase the land and create a coastal reserve, administered by the North Carolina Division of Coastal Management.</p><br>
<p>Broad Sound is a large bay on the east coast of Australia, in the state of Queensland 675 km northwest of the state capital, Brisbane. It is about 50 km long and 20 km across at its widest point. The Torilla Peninsula forms the eastern side of the bay; Shoalwater Bay is on the other side of the peninsula.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>British explorer James Cook, in HMS Endeavour, sighted the bay in May 1770, naming it for its size. The next European navigator in the area was Matthew Flinders in HMS Investigator in 1802.</p><br>
<p>The town of St Lawrence was established midway between Rockhampton and Mackay on St Lawrence Creek and developed as a port for the export of cattle from the hinterland, with a large meatworks built close by in 1893. The processing and export of meat and cattle continued until 1919 when rail links were built elsewhere, making the port redundant. By 2006 the population of St Lawrence had dropped to 125, out of a population of the Broad Sound area of 268.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>The bay has a low-lying coastline with wide mudflats exposed at low tide and backed by extensive areas of mangroves. The head of the bay has the greatest tidal range on Australia’s east coast - around 9 m. The coastline is punctuated by the mangrove-lined estuaries of several rivers and creeks, including Herbert and St Lawrence Creeks and the Styx River. Behind the mangroves is a hinterland of low, rounded hills covered by a mix of grassland and low eucalypt woodland or forest. The climate is subtropical with a dry winter.</p><br>
<h2>Birds</h2><br>
<p>The extensive tracts of mangroves and mudflats, comprising some 1200 km in the southern part of the bay, have been classified by BirdLife International as an Important Bird Area. It supports globally important populations of the straw-necked ibis (with up to 15,000 individual birds), Australian bustard, Latham&#39;s snipe, sharp-tailed sandpiper and mangrove honeyeater.</p><br>
<p>The Mount Baker Tunnel or Mount Baker Ridge Tunnel carries Interstate 90 under the Mount Baker neighborhood of Seattle, Washington. It is actually a group of three tunnels that carry eight lanes of freeway traffic, plus a separate path for bicycles and pedestrians. The two originals are twin tunnel bores completed in 1940 and rehabilitated in 1993. The newest tunnel was built north of the original tunnels and opened in June 1989. The tunnel has a double-decked roadway with the bicycle/pedestrian path above the traffic lanes.</p><br>
<p>The entire tunnel is listed on the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP), ID #82004243. The east portals of the tunnel, with murals designed by artist James FitzGerald, along with the Lacey V. Murrow Bridge, are an official City of Seattle landmark.</p><br>
<p>The official length is 1,440 ft, though the perceived length while driving is closer to a 1 km because of a cut-and-cover "lid" between the western portal and the beginning of the actual tunnel under the Mount Baker ridge. The eastern end of the tunnel links to the Lacey V. Murrow Memorial Bridge and the Homer M. Hadley Memorial Bridge (collectively the I-90 floating bridge) on Lake Washington, to Mercer Island.</p><br>
<p>At 63 ft in diameter, it is the world&#39;s largest diameter soft earth tunnel, having been bored through clay.</p><br>
<h2>Configuration</h2><br>
<h3>Original</h3><br>
<p>When completed in 1940, the twin tunnels connected the I-90 floating bridge on Lake Washington and Rainier Avenue South in Seattle. The bridge and tunnels were part of US Highway 10, which used surface streets between the tunnels and downtown Seattle. US 10 was a four-lane, undivided highway. Each tunnel held two traffic lanes. The north tunnel normally carried two westbound lanes. The south tunnel normally carried two eastbound lanes. In the 1960s, a lane-use signal system was added to improve peak commute traffic. During peak commute times, the signals were used to make the center two lanes reversible. In the mornings, three lanes flowed west and one lane flowed east. In the evenings, three lanes flowed east and one lane flowed west. During morning and evening commutes, one tunnel carried two lanes of traffic in the same direction while the other tunnel carried opposing traffic separated by only dashed yellow lines.</p><br>
<p>The highway would later become part of Interstate 90, be expanded, and upgraded to a controlled-access freeway. The freeway expansion and upgrade was completed in 1993.</p><br>
<h3>Current</h3><br>
<p>Upon completion of the Interstate 90 expansion program in the 1990s, the freeway capacity increased to three general-purpose lanes in each direction and two reversible HOV lanes. Eastbound traffic uses the original tunnels. Westbound traffic uses the upper deck of the northern new tunnel. A two-lane reversible roadway uses the lower deck. The reversible roadway served as express lanes for transit buses and carpools (2+ people) during peak commute periods until 2017. The express lanes flowed westbound on weekday mornings and eastbound on weekday afternoons and evenings. On weekends, the express lanes were open; traffic direction was variable depending on anticipated traffic volumes. When the express lanes were open to eastbound traffic, single-occupant vehicles headed to Mercer Island are allowed to use the lanes per an inter-local agreement signed in 1976.</p><br>
<p>Above the westbound traffic is the I-90 Trail tunnel. At 1,330 feet, it is the longest non-adapted trail tunnel in the world. On the western half, the trail emerges onto the lid and uses trails in Lid Park.</p><br>
<p>In 2017, the Washington State Department of Transportation added a pair of high-occupancy vehicle lanes (HOV lanes) to Interstate 90 from Seattle to Bellevue, replacing the reversible express lanes. The express lanes were closed in June 2017 for the construction of the East Link light rail project, which will extend Link light rail service from Seattle to Bellevue and Redmond in 2023. On Mercer Island, WSDOT and Sound Transit are building direct access ramps to allow buses and HOVs to exit and enter I-90 from the HOV lanes.</p><br>
<p>Paul Bunyan and Babe the Blue Ox are the names of a pair of large statues of the American folk hero Paul Bunyan and his ox, located in Bemidji, Minnesota. This roadside attraction has been on the National Register of Historic Places since 1988. Much like the architecture found in such structures as the Benewah Milk Bottle, the Teapot Dome Service Station or the comparably colossal Dinosaur Park sculptures in South Dakota, it served to attract the attention of motorists passing by and coincided with the dramatic rise in the popularity of automobiles.</p><br>
<p>The statues have been hailed by the Kodak Company as the "second most photographed statues in the United States", behind only Mount Rushmore in South Dakota.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The city of Bemidji is located in a vast woodland and lake region. As early as the 1890s the town saw a modest tourist trade. When rail connections came to Bemidji, in 1898, promoters began the development of lakeshore sites for cottages, hotels and resorts. Most of these resorts catered to hunters and anglers. In the 1920s the rise in automobile popularity contributed to a significant boom in Bemidji&#39;s tourist industry, but it, along with the rest of the economy, suffered during the Great Depression. Enter Paul Bunyan and Babe the Blue Ox.</p><br>
<p>As a means of stimulating tourism in Bemidji a number of local, civic organizations sponsored a winter carnival meant to hype the citys resources for winter sports. Due to Bemidjis once prominent status as a logging and lumbering center the celebrations focused on Paul Bunyan, the larger-than life lumberjack who is an American folk hero. On January 14, 1937 the carnival opened with Earl L. Grinols, Sr. the carnival king. The onset of the carnival brought the unveiling of two giant statues, one of Bunyan and the other of his giant blue ox, Babe; the pair would serve as carnival mascots. Babe was brought into town on a Grinols Implement & Fuel Co. truck arranged so that its exhaust exited through Babe&#39;s nostrils.</p><br>
<p>In March 2006, the Rotary Club of Bemidji raised $53,000 and along with a $68,000 federal grant set about to repair some damage to the statues. In addition the money was to be used in maintenance with the majority slated for stabilizing the ground beneath the statues, to lessen shifting in freezing temperatures. The work also focused on a 1 in crack in Babe from the neck to the hindquarters which continued to widen despite yearly fixes by the city with caulk and blue paint.</p><br>
<h2>Dimensions</h2><br>
<p>Paul Bunyan is approximately 18 ft tall and measures 5 ft across at his base. From toe to heel, Paul Bunyan measures 3 ft. Babe the Blue Ox is about 10 ft tall and 8 ft across at the front hooves. From nose to tail, Babe measures about 23 ft.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>The statues are featured in the first season of the FX series Fargo. While mainly pictured on Bemidji&#39;s welcome sign throughout the season, the statues make their physical debut in the episode "A Fox, a Rabbit, and a Cabbage". In the episode, the statues, while accurate in design, are depicted as smaller, life-size statues standing upon tall pedestals and located next to some railroad tracks instead of on the lake shore.</p><br>
<p>The statues are featured in the 2014 film Kumiko, the Treasure Hunter.</p><br>
<p>The 8th track from the album "Danza IIII: The Alpha - The Omega" of American mathcore band The Tony Danza Tapdance Extravaganza is called "Paul Bunyan and The Blue Ox".</p><br>
<p>The statues are featured on a postcard during the opening sequence to National Lampoon&#39;s Vacation.</p><br>
<p>A fictional version of the statue is featured in It by Stephen King.</p><br>
<p>The statues are featured in the Disney XD animated series Gravity Falls most notably in the season 2 episode Roadside Attraction.</p><br>
<p>The Rodderberg is an extinct volcano in the east of the municipality of Wachtberg near Bonn, Germany. The last eruption was 250,000 years ago.</p><br>
<p>It is situated just above the Rhine-valley. Together with the Drachenfels directly opposite, the Rodderberg narrows the Rhine-valley. This gorge portion is the southern limit of the lowland-bay of Cologne.</p><br>
<p>The Rodderberg offers views to the Siebengebirge, the Rhine-valley and up to the Cologne Cathedral, about 50 km away.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The Rodderberg detonated in a phreatomagmatic eruption about 250,000 years ago. This happened when the magmatic plume reached the groundwater level of the Rhine (about 50m higher than today). After the explosion, the crater was filled with water that formed a maar of about 90 m depth. In the last 250,000 years this feature filled with dust and soil until it was filled up to today&#39;s level.</p><br>
<p>At present, all that is left of the old Volcano is just a small hill which has a shallow craterous form on its surface - if one doesn&#39;t know that it is a volcano, you would not see it.</p><br>
<p></revision></p><br>
<p>Rewalsar Lake is a mid-altitude lake located on a mountain spur in the Mandi district, 22.5 km south-west from Mandi, in India. Its elevation is about 1,360 m above sea level.</p><br>
<p>The lake is shaped like a square with the shoreline of about 735 m. It is held as a sacred spot for Hindus, Sikhs and Buddhists.</p><br>
<p>There are three Buddhist monasteries at Riwalsar. The lake also has three Hindu temples dedicated to Lord Krishna, Lord Shiva and to the sage Lomas. Another holy lake, Kunt Bhyog which is about 1,750 m above sea level lies above Rewalsar. It is associated with the escape of Pandavas from the burning palace of wax—an episode from the epic Mahabharata.</p><br>
<p>It was from here that the Indian teacher and Tantric Padmasambhava left for Tibet. Known to the Tibetans as Guru Rinpoche, the Precious Master, it was under Padmasambhava&#39;s influence that Mahayana Buddhism spread over Tibet. There are islands of floating reed on Rewalsar lake and the spirit of Padmasambhava is said to reside in them. It is here that the sage Lomas did penance in devotion to Lord Shiva, and the Sikh guru Gobind Singh (22 December 1666 – 7 October 1708), the tenth Guru of Sikhism, also resided here for one month.</p><br>
<p>The Sisu fair held in late February/early march, and the festival of Baisakhi are important events at Rewalsar.</p><br>
<h2>Legend of Padmasambhava and Princess Mandarava of Mandi (Zahor)</h2><br>
<p>Mandarava and Padmasambhava were energetically drawn to one another. Vihardhara, fearful of the contamination of the royal bloodline and what he perceived as Mandarava&#39;s apostasy, endeavoured to have Mandarava and Padmasambhava purified by immolation through the flames of a pyre. Instead of finding their corpses incensed and charred, Vihardhara finds that the fire of the pyre has been transformed into Lake Rewalsar, out of which arises a blooming lotus that supports the unharmed Mandarava and Padmasambhava who through this manifestation of their realisation have achieved their secret names of Vajravarahi and Hayagriva, respectively, after which Vihardhara furnishes the union with his unreserved blessings.</p><br>
<p>Legend has it that the great teacher Padmasambhava (Guru Rinpoche) used his enormous power to take flight to Tibet from Rewalsar. In Rewalsar, his spirit is said to reside in the tiny island of floating reed that drifts over the water.</p><br>
<p>Prashar Lake lies 49 km north of Mandi, Himachal Pradesh, India, with a three storied pagoda-like temple dedicated to the sage Prashar. The lake is located at a height of 2730 m above sea level. With deep blue waters, the lake is held sacred to the sage Prashar and he is regarded to have meditated there. Surrounded by snow-capped peaks and looking down on the fast flowing river Beas, the lake can be approached via Drang.</p><br>
<p>The temple was built in the thirteenth century and legend has it was built by a baby from a single tree. The lake has a floating island in it and it is said to be unclear how deep it is, with a diver not being able to determine its depth.</p><br>
<h2>Mythology</h2><br>
<p>Mythology says that this lake was formed by Pandawas when they were on their way after Mahabharata with Deity Kamrunag (based on which this entire valley is known as Kamru Valley today) to find best place for their teacher, Dev Kamrunag and Deity love the isolation of this place so much that he decided to stay here for the rest of his life. On his request, Bheem one of the Pandava brothers formed the lake by pushing his elbow and forearm on the peak of the mountain. And that is the reason believed by locals after oval-shaped lake with depth unknown. Many a time in storms an almost 30-meter-tall cedar tree would fall into the lake to disappear.</p><br>
<p>Today people from all faiths come here. As an offering people throw money, silver coins and gold into the water.</p><br>
<p>This place is available for visitors throughout the year except for winter months, i.e. Dec. through March. Now with increased visitors there are few hotels available with basic facilities with reasonable price. 03 hrs (106 km) trek from Rohanda to Kamrunag Lake.</p><br>
<p>The place is full of peace, with old images of Gods and Saint Prashar. The unique thing about this lake is that there is a patch of grass which moves from one end to the other. In the summer it is at one end and in winter it touches the other end. The pujari or the priest of the temple is not a brahmin but a Rajput. They say one of the kings was unhappy with the local priest so he appointed a Rajput priest to display his powers.</p><br>
<p>Nako Lake is a high altitude lake in the Pooh sub-division of the Kinnaur district. It forms part of the boundary of Nako village and seems that the village is half buried in the lake&#39;s border. It is about 3,662 m above sea level. The lake is surrounded by willow and poplar trees. Near the lake there are four Buddhist temples. Near this place there is a footlike impression ascribed to the saint Padmasambhava. Several miles away there is a village called Tashigang around which there are several caves where it is believed that Guru Padmasambhava meditated and gave discourse to followers. There is a waterfall nearby which has snow water falling like a river of milk. Legend says that it is a heavenly realm of fairies. In one of the caves you are still able to see the live footprints of these fairies or other demigods. It is a sacred place for the people of these valleys. Followers come from as far a place as Ladhak and spiti valley.</p><br>
<p>Manimahesh Lake  is a high altitude lake  situated close to the Manimahesh Kailash Peak in the Pir Panjal Range of the Himalayas, in the Bharmour subdivision of Chamba district of the Indian state of Himachal Pradesh. The religious significance of this lake is next to that of the Lake Manasarovar in Tibet.</p><br>
<p>The lake is the venue of a highly revered pilgrimage trek undertaken during the month of August/September corresponding to the month of Bhadon according to Hindu calendar, on the eighth day of the New Moon period. It is known as the ‘Manimahesh Yatra’. The Government of Himachal Pradesh has declared it as a state-level pilgrimage.</p><br>
<h2>Legend</h2><br>
<p>According to one popular legend, it is believed that Lord Shiva created Manimahesh after he married Goddess Parvati, who is worshipped as Mata Girija. There are many legends narrated linking Lord Shiva and his show of displeasure through acts of avalanches and blizzards that occur in the region.</p><br>
<p>Legend also mentions that Shiva performed penance on the banks of Manimahesh Lake. In the same vein, it is mentioned that Gaddis (Shepherd), the tribes of this region, adopted Lord Shiva as their deity. Gaddis are the people who reside in the Gaddi Valley which is the name of the upper regions of Ravi River where the Mount Chamba Kailash lies. Further, according to the legend, the Shiva, who lived in Mount Kailash, the highest mountain of the state, gifted the Gaddis with a Chuhali topi (pointed cap), which they wear traditionally along with their other dress of chola (coat) and dora (a long black cord about 10–15 m long). The Gaddis started calling the land of this mountainous region as Shiv Bhumi ("Land of Shiva") and themselves as devotees of Shiva. The legend further states that before Shiva married Parvati at Mansarovar Lake and became the "universal parents of the universe", Shiva created the Mount Kailash in Himachal Pradesh and made it his abode. He made Gaddis his devotees. The land where Gaddis lived extended from 15 mi west of Bharmaur, upstream of the confluence of Budhil and Ravi rivers, up to Manimahesh. Manimahesh was also considered the abode of the three Lords of the universe namely, Shiva, Vishnu and Brahma. Manimahesh was reckoned as the heaven (Kaliasa) of Lord Shiva. The waterfall seen at the Dhancho on the way to Manimahesh Lake, and which emanates from the lake, was considered as the heaven (Vaikunta) of Vishnu. The heaven of Bramha is cited as a mound overlooking the Bharmaur city. The Gaddis also believe that Shiva resides in the Mount Kailash for six months, whereafter he moves to the netherworld handing over the reigns to Lord Vishnu. The day he departs to the netherworld is observed by the Gaddis reverentially every year, which is the Janmashtami day, the eighth day of the month of Bhadon (August), the birthday of Lord Krishna (an incarnation of Lord Vishnu). Shiva returned from the netherworld to Bharamaur at the end of February, before the night of his wedding and this day is observed as the Shivratri day; Gaddis observe this also as a festive day since Shiva and Parvati returned to Mount Kailash in the Gaddi land.</p><br>
<p>Etymology of Manimahesh signifies a "jewel (Mani) on Lord Shivas (Maheshs) crown". According to a local legend, the moon-rays reflected from the jewel can be seen from Manimahesh Lake on clear full moon night (which is a rare occasion). However, it has been inferred that such a phenomenon could be the result of reflection of light from the glacier that embellishes the peak in the form of a serpent around Shiva&#39;s neck.</p><br>
<p>A legend in which Lord Shiva himself is tricked is narrated. According to this narration linked to Dhancho where pilgrims spend a night on their way to Manimahesh Lake, Lord Shiva, pleased with the devotion of one of his ardent devotees Bhasmasur (an asura or demon) bestowed a boon, which gave powers to Bhasmasur under which Bhasmasur touching anyone would reduce that person to ashes. Bhasmasur wanted to try this boon on Shiva himself. He, therefore, followed Shiva to touch him and get rid of him. However, Shiva managed to escape and enter into the waterfall at Dhancho and take shelter in a cave behind the rolling waters of the fall. Bhasmasur could not get through the waterfall. Then, Lord Vishnu intervened and killed Bhasamasur. Since then the fall is considered holy</p><br>
<p>A rare event of the first sun’s rays falling on the Mani Mahesh peak is seen in reflection in the lake like saffron tilak. This display in the lake has enhanced the legendary belief of the Gaddis on the sanctity of Manimahesh Lake at the base of the Mount Kailash, which they visit on an annual pilgrimage. This event has also contributed to the practice of taking bath in the lake on Janmashtami day or Radhashtami day, fifteen days after the birth of Lord Krishna.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The lake, of glacial origin, is in the upper reaches of the Ghoi nala(refer Leomann maps:India Himalaya Map 4) which is tributary of Budhil river, a tributary of the Ravi River in Himachal Pradesh. However, the lake is the source of a tributary of the Budhil River, known as ‘Manimahesh Ganga’. The stream originates from the lake in the form of a fall at Dhancho. The mountain peak is a snow clad tribal glen of Brahamur in the Chamba district of manimahesh range. The highest peak is the Mani Mahesh Kailas, also called ‘Chamba Kailash (elevation 5,656 m) overlooking the lake. The lake, considered a glacial depression, is sourced by snow-melt waters from the surrounding hill slopes. Towards the end of June with ice beginning to melt, numerous small streams break up everywhere, which together with the lush green hills and the myriad of flowers give the place a truly remarkable view. The snow field at the base of the mountain is called by the local people as Shiva’s Chaugan Shivas playground. According to a belief, Lord Shiva stayed here with his consort Parvati.</p><br>
<p>Manimahesh is approached from three routes. Pilgrims from Lahaul and Spiti pass through Kugti pass. Pilgrims from Kangra and Mandi take the Karwarsi pass or Jalsu pass via Tyari village, near Holi in Bharmour. The easiest and popular route is from Chamba via Bharmour. The most popular is the Bhanrlour–Hadsar-Manimahesh route which involves a 13 km track from Hadsar village to the Manimahesh Lake. The highest altitude touched in this route is 4,115 m and it takes two days with an overnight stay at Dhancho. Season to be undertaken is June to October and it has a gentle grade. The path leading to the lake is well maintained.</p><br>
<p>Half way up this track is 6 km of open and flat meadow land to Dhancho. Tented accommodation is available here during August–September. Night halt is preferred here. Free kitchens are opened by people to feed pilgrims. But many prefer to go and pitch their tents next to the lake to feel a divine experience. En route, there is waterfall at Gauri nallah known as the Dhancho fall. From Dhancho, it is a steep climb. This track has seen lot of improvements over the years. In the past the first climb was first done by crossing Dhancho nalla. It was so tough that people used to crawl to get across. Since they used to crawl like a monkey in this stretch it was known as Bandar Ghati (monkey valley). Now this track is much improved and the newly constructed path is used. However, some still prefer to take the old route as an adventure and go through the Bandar Ghati.</p><br>
<p>In the past, on the trek from Dhancho, the bridge over the Mani Mahesh river was crossed to reach the left bank of the valley. After 2 km, the river was again crossed, over another wooden bridge, to the right bank.</p><br>
<p>From this point, the climb passes through many zigzag paths along flowered meadows. Birch trees are seen in the vicinity, which indicates a gain in altitude as the trek proceeds. Along this stretch of the trek route, there are a number community kitchens (eateries) at about 3,600 m elevation. From this location, the trail to Mani Mahesh Lake could be discerned. The waterfall, flowing from the lake, is also seen at this stage. A further trek of 1.5 km through the grassy ridges leads to the Manimahesh Lake.</p><br>
<h2>Lake and its precincts</h2><br>
<p>Even though the Manimahesh Lake is of small size with shallow depth, its location, directly below Manimahesh Kailas peak and several other peaks and dangling glaciers, is an "inspiration even to the least devout pilgrim."</p><br>
<p>Trekking in the last reach is through the glacier fields of the lake. However, on the way, the walk is through the valley of flowers and wild medicinal herbs up to the lake. The lake is situated at the centre of a snowy field touching the sacred peak. The lake is surrounded by sandy boulders, small hilly mounds and prickly dry bushes, and there is no sign of any grass. It is called Shiv Chaugan (play ground of Lord Shiva). The lake appears as if it has penetrated the rugged valley. On a clear day the reflection of the abode of Shiva, the Kailash Mountain can be seen on the lake surface. All the year round, the place remains desolate, without any inhabitants, because none dares to stay here. The air is fresh but icy cold. There are almost no fauna in the lake at its precincts – no ants, snakes or any kind of wild life. A few Bird species are sighted rarely. The silence of the place is broken only when the pilgrims visit the place in large numbers, an evening before the holy dip (locally known as naun) in the lake.</p><br>
<p>According to legend, Lord Shiva performed penance for several hundred years here. The water cascades sprang out from his matted hair and took the form of the lake. The lake as formed appears like a saucer. It has two distinct parts. The larger part has icy cold water, called the Shiv Karotri (the bathing place of Lord Shiva). The smaller part of the lake, which is hidden by the bushes, has lukewarm water and is called Gauri Kund, the bathing place of Parvati, Shiva&#39;s consort. Thus, men and women bathe in different parts of the lake. According to rites, the dip (called locally as naun) in the lake is taken four times, if permitted or otherwise only once.</p><br>
<p>In the periphery of the lake, now there is a marble image of Lord Shiva, which is worshipped by pilgrims. The image is called the Chaumukha. The lake and its surroundings present an impressive view. The still, clear and unpolluted waters of the lake reflect the snow-capped peaks that overlook the valley. There is also a small temple in the shikhara style on the periphery of the lake. A brass image of Lakshmi Devi known as Mahishasuramardini is deified in the temple.</p><br>
<h2>Pilgrimage</h2><br>
<p>The holy pilgrimage to the Manimahesh Lake (revered by local people as resting place of Lord Shiva) is supported by the Government of Himachal Pradesh, Manimahesh Pilgrimage Committee and several voluntary organizations. For the Gaddi tribal population of the region, pilgrimage to the lake is most holy. It is held every year during the Hindu month of Badon on Radha asthami, the 15th day following the festival of Janmashtami, corresponding to the Gregorian month of August or September. The Yatra or Jatra, as it is called, is also popularly known as the Manimhesh Yatra. It is heralded by a procession known locally as "holy chhari" (holy stick carried by the pilgrims on their shoulders) trek undertaken by pilgrims and sadhus. Pilgrims undertake the holy trek barefoot and cover a distance of 14 km from the nearest road point of Hadsar to the Manimahesh Lake. Lord Shiva is the presiding deity of the yatra. The colourful procession of the "chhari" is accompanied by singing and recitation of hymns in praise of Lord Shiva. The Chhari trek, considered a tough trek, follows a set ancient route with stops at the designated places. To facilitate this trek, pilgrims are provided with facilities of transport (jeeps up to road ends), food and medical facilities and so forth. It is a two-day trek to the lake from Hadsar with a night halt at Dhanchho. Tents are available for hire at Bharmour or Chamba. Ponies are hired by some devotees for the trek. Direct trekking from Chamba is also an option undertaken by the devout, which is a nine-day trek; the route followed is Rakh (20 km), Bharmaur, Hadsar (12 km), Dhancho (7 km) and Manimahesh (7.5 km) with a brief halt at Bhiram Ghati. The return trip follows the same route.</p><br>
<p>The holy trek starts from the Laxmi Narayan temple and the Dashnami Akhara in Chamba town, with the sacred stick (Chhari) of Gur Charpathnath carried by the pilgrims with participation of sadhus. The trek to the lake takes about 6 days. After the procession arrives at the lake, ceremonies are held all through the night. On the following day, pilgrims take a holy dip (naun) in the lake. After taking bath in the holy waters of the lake, pilgrims circumambulate the lake three times as an act of reverence, seeking blessings of the Lord Shiva.</p><br>
<p>The Lehigh Canal or the Lehigh Navigation Canal is a navigation type canal. The canal begins at the mouth of Nesquehoning Creek on the Lehigh River in Eastern Pennsylvania.</p><br>
<p>It was constructed in two sections, built over the span of twenty years, beginning in 1818. The lower section spanned the distance between Easton, Pennsylvania and the town of Mauch Chunk, present-day Jim Thorpe, Pennsylvania. In Easton, the Lehigh Canal met the Delaware and Morris Canals, with which goods could be brought further up the east coast. At its height, the canal was 72 mi long.</p><br>
<p>Although the canal was used to transport all sorts of products, its most significant cargos were anthracite coal and anthracite pig iron. These two products were cornerstones of the American Industrial Revolution, and defined the character of the towns surrounding the canal.</p><br>
<p>The route consisted not only of canals, but also dammed-off sections of the Lehigh River. Boatsmen had to navigate their barges periodically from the canal, through a lock onto the river, or vice versa. This design saved time and money while the canal was being built, although it also made for a slower, more difficult trip for canal boat captains.</p><br>
<h2>Politics and era</h2><br>
<p>The lower navigation began as a humble collection of removed stone obstructions, low piled rock dams with a system of wooden "Bear Trap Locks" invented by Lehigh Navigation Company managing partner, Josiah White who debugged scale models of the new lock design on Mauch Chunk Creek. would leverage the canal into the American Industrial Revolution, that for 111 years shipped the fuel feeding the foundries, forges, manufacturies, and steel mills of Eastern Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and much of New York, New England, and the world. It started with the need for energy by White and partner Erskine Hazard who operated a wire mill, foundry, and nail factory at the Falls of the Schuylkill. Having learned the secret to burning anthracite during the British blockades in 1814, White and Hazard joined a number of Philadelphia luminaries in subscribing to a joint stock venture to build the Schuylkill Canal, but quarreled with the others on the board of managers, who did not favor a rapid development. Investigating options, they learned the managers of the Lehigh Coal Mine Company were willing to option their rights, disgusted with their long term inability to make a profit bringing Anthracite nearly 110 miles from Pisgah Ridge. A group, the Lehigh Navigation Company was holding a charter to improve the navigability of the Lehigh River, but had little to show for repeated expenditures and their charter was due to expire in 1817. White and Hazard made their proposal, which specified improvements for only down river navigation, and in March 1818 received a charter effectively giving the company ownership of the Lehigh to do with as they would. It had one fall-back provision &mdash; at some time the legislature might require the improvements be made to enable two way navigation.</p><br>
<h2>The Lower Canal</h2><br>
<p>The lower canal (46.5 mi) was built by the Lehigh Navigation Company as a coal toll road to service the Anthracite appetite of Eastern seaboard cities ahead of schedule, between 1818-1820 (down traffic only), and then gradually rebuilt (with locks fully supporting two way traffic) 1827-1829 by the Lehigh Coal & Navigation Company and continued in operation as a key transportation canal until the 1931. The lower canal connected the Eastern part of the Southern Coal Region to the Delaware River basin&mdash;mainly the Panther Creek Valley, Nesquehoning Creek Valley, and coal mines along the Beaver Meadows, PA-Black Creek, connecting via Penn Haven Junction to the canal head at Mauch Chunk (now Jim Thorpe, PA).</p><br>
<p>The lower canal began below Packers Dam a wing wall projecting out into the upper pool to create a slack water condition next to the coal loading docks, at having the same level as top of the first guard Dam referred to as Dam 1 (just down stream of Broadway opposite Flagstaff Hill and the cross-canal summit Bear Mountain for which Mauch Chunk was named. The 44 Lift locks begin with Lock 1 at the dam, which was also a weighing lock using a clever platform which lifted a barge and weighed the boat and load quite accurately. Each non-LC&NC barge on the canal had to be record and empty weights were subtracted and tolls assessed by the ton per mile traveled, like fares on any toll road. Most of the 44 locks on to descent to Easton, PA were spillway variations of Whites Bear Trap lock, which when tipped or triggered released several acre-feet allowing an artificial wave front to raise the water level as the canal boat sank down river. using a specially designed canal boat capable of making the one-way trip on the River as well. It was used to carry anthracite gathered to the central Lehigh Valley to the urban markets of the northeast, especially Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, Trenton, New Jersey, and Wilmington, Delaware, but supported new growth industries in Bristol, PA, Allentown and Bethlehem, and through the Morris Canal and Delaware and Raritan Canal and a number of railways, supported energy needs of the country. The privately funded canal was joined as part of the Pennsylvania Canal System, a complex system of canals and tow paths&mdash;and eventually railroads. The canal was last used to carry cargoes in 1942 and thereafter LC&N Co. let natures ravages have their gradual and inevitable way. The LC&N Co. was sold back to Pennsylvania for preservation and recreational use in the 1964.</p><br>
<p>Today, many parts of the canal or railroads later constructed to flank it, have been converted to the Delaware and Lehigh National Heritage Corridor (known colloquially as the Delaware & Lehigh Trail, the D & L Trail), a multi-use rail trail.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>The Lehigh Coal Mine Company</h3><br>
<p>The Lehigh Coal Mine Company (LCMC) was founded in 1792, a few months after Anthracite coal was discovered at Sharpe Mountain, a peak of the Pisgah Ridge near to the location that became Summit Hill, Pennsylvania, and its principals would secure rights to over 10,000 acres before the Lehigh Canal was created. Where that enterprise found it fairly easy to find and mine coal from a pit along the mountainside, but the mine output needed laboriously loaded into sacks then onto pack animals which had to carry the coal a minimum of nine miles to the Lehigh shores. There, the company had to build disposable skiffs called arks, cutting down, saw milling, and using local stands of timber, which then needed manned when waters were ample enough by stout hearted men which had to brave and survive running the various rapids along the lower Lehigh River. Despite many politically connected stockholders and officers, over a decade and a half the operation was repeatedly victimized by its own methods, plagued by lack of oversight by upper management.</p><br>
<p>Having no company officer willing to manage from the field, the LCMC hired contractors, or sent out teams over the years which had only sporadic success in getting a boat filled with coal to the markets of Philadelphia. Yet the Eastern cities were undergoing a deforestation caused energy crisis&mdash;fire wood for heating buildings, and charcoal for working or making iron was becoming dear to purchase and hard to find by the time of the War of 1812. Prior to the war, so dismal was the LCMC companys record of getting coal to market, that coal imported from England was cheaper to find and more reliable to repurchase. The war gave a small boost to the companys aspirations, and the LCMC sent an expedition under independent contractors which after a year, despite local management, returned in 1814 after building five boats but able to bring only two to market, so also took a loss. They were both bought by the same party, White & Hazard, now knowing how to burn the fuel effectively, but the new losses were the last straw for many of the companies backers who were unwilling to fund any new expeditions.</p><br>
<h3>Early history</h3><br>
<p>The Lehigh Coal & Navigation Company and its founder-operations managers into the mid-1860s, Josiah White and protege & partner Erskine Hazard together sit astride the history of the 1820-1880s industrial revolution, and with time, developed much the same clout as a modern conglomerate such as General Motors, or General Electric or with the same sorts of innovations as are ascribed to IBM, Microsoft or the like. Before their larger victories, they established a reputation for innovation and using technology in novel ways. Leveraging off innovation and immense self-confidence, the Company founders researched or invented emerging technologies as needed, pioneering many industrial innovations from the first wire suspension bridge over the Schuylkill River near the Falls of the Schuylkill</p><br>
<h3>Lower Lehigh Canal</h3><br>
<p>With the discovery of large surface deposits of anthracite coal, the Lehigh Coal Mine Company (LCMC) was formed in 1792 to secure the mineral rights to vast areas of wilderness west of the Lehigh River ranging beyond to the outcrops atop Sharpe Peak of Pisgah Ridge near present-day Summit Hill, Pennsylvania. The LCMC lacked a principle investor as a hands-on-manager and periodically hired teams to trek to the wilderness to build Arks along the Lehigh near the turnpike operated from Lausanne (1800s Township) above Mauch Chunk to the Susquehanna River valley (passed by Beaver Meadows and the eventual Beaver Meadows mines) and then attempted to transport the coal down the Lehigh River to the Delaware River and on to the docks in Philadelphia. The lack of steady effort and an intimately involved company officer in the operations returned sketchy results, most often the expeditions would loose arks on the rapids of the Lehigh and so the LCMC made little profits, and only sporadic efforts over two decades. Inspired by the energy shortfall during the blockade of the War of 1812, the LCMC sent a large expedition out in 1813, which started down the river in spring of 1814 with five arks laden with coal. Only two of them made it to Philadelphia, and both were purchased by Josiah White and partner Erskine Hazard. The LCMC board in its disgust confirmed the unreliability of the fuel source when they let it be known they planned no further risky expeditions as too costly, giving White and Hazard the idea of purchasing the rights to operate the mining company. In the fall of 1814 they mounted an expedition to survey the Lehigh&#39;s problems and those of the coal mine and transportation needs for getting its output to the River reliably and regularly.</p><br>
<h4>Initial construction</h4><br>
<p>The lower Lehigh Canal improvements were initially designed and engineered by LC&N founder Josiah White</p><br>
<p>after theyd very quickly become disenchanted with the decisions and strategies of the Schuykill Canals board of directors, so by the winter of 1814 were very interested in exploring the option of getting coal from Lehigh valley down to Philadelphia the more than 100 mi, one way or another.</p><br>
<p>But by late 1822 Anthracite was achieving early acceptance and skepticism was waning. The drain of building Coal Arks for every load delivered to the docks of Philadelphia in 1822—just as the LC&N operations were just hitting stride—was already a worry to the managing board of directors. By mid-1822, managing director Josiah White was consulting with Canvass White, an veteran designing engineer of New York&#39;s Erie Canal locks, and by late 1822 had shifted construction efforts from bolstering and improving the one-way system begun in 1818 with an ambitious two-way dams and lock construction test project on the four upper dams of the Canal which were designed with a wider lift channel and length of over 120 ft capable of taking both a steam tug and a coastal cargo ship. The design all 45.6 mi from the Delaware to the slack water pool at Mauch Chunk. In 1823 White and Hazard proposed a plan to the state legislature to build</p><br>
<h4>Economics of deforestation</h4><br>
<p>In 1823, having built and tested four such locks Josiah White made a formal proposal to the legislature to continue the improvements all the way down the Lehigh, but also including shipping locks suitable for a coastal schooner and towing steam tug (As were now dominating ports) along the 62 mi of the Delaware River at LC&N expense. In 1824, the legislature rejected the proposal, swayed by lumber and timber interests fearing damming would prevent rafting logs on the rivers to local sawmills. White and Hazard had to scramble to keep mine production increasing yet also timber, transport, and saw sufficient lumber to build enough arks to send the companies coal the long dangerous route along the Delaware to Philadelphia. In 1827 a revision to the Main Line of Public Works funded the promised Delaware Canal and the LC&N Co. began converting the navigations into supporting two way operations which went on in to 1829. In 1831 the LC&N Co. prematurely stopped making one way arks and began building larger barges with durability to last years, expecting their return via a connection with the Pennsylvania Canal (Delaware Division) in Easton.</p><br>
<p>The enlarged Lehigh Navigation extended 46 mi between Mauch Chunk, Pennsylvania (present-day Jim Thorpe) and Easton with 52 locks, eight guard locks, eight dams and six aqueducts, allowing the waterway to overcome a difference in elevation of over 350 ft. A weigh lock determined canal boat fees a half mile (1 km) south of Mauch Chunk. A cable-ferry connection across the Delaware River to the Morris Canal and then up through New Jersey allowed the coal from the Lehigh Canal to be shipped more directly to New York City. To the south, the Delaware and Raritan Canal had a complimentary 22 mi navigation built along the east bank of the Delaware from</p><br>
<h4>Expansion</h4><br>
<p>During the later 1830s, another chunk of the upper Lehigh River was made navigable to ship coal from the rich coal beds of the central Wyoming Valley &mdash; as the Upper Lehigh Canal, an extension of 26 mi to White Haven, Pennsylvania which would rise almost twice as much in half the distance as the lower canal with its gentle altitude changes. The upper canal design included 20 dams and 29 locks, and a variety of reservoirs to provide working flow even in dry summers was constructed, covering a difference in elevation of over 600 ft to the Mauch Chunk slack water pool. Unlike the lower canal with a maximum lift less than 20&#39;, the upper canal had locks lifting a maximum of 58 ft. This is comparable to the lift of the lower canal in a bit over half the distance using less than 11/18ths as many locks per mile. The LC&N Co. began work on the upper canal in 1835, which like construction of the lower, required work parties camping in the wilderness miles from the nearest road, village, or railroad.</p><br>
<p>The upper Lehigh Canal was designed by Canvass White, an engineer of New York&#39;s Erie Canal, and was constructed between 1837 and 1843, as authorized by the 1837 revision of the Main Line of Public Works. Unlike the lower canal where most locks lifted less than six feet in easy elevation stages, the upper canal design had a greater reliance on deep lift locks. The upper Lehigh was a twisty rapids strewn watercourse with steep sides, a large part of which was located in a ravine, the Lehigh Gorge. The village of White Haven, PA is at the upper end of the navigation, and inspired by the successful working of freight over the Allegheny Front escarpment via the Allegheny Portage Railroad system, in the mid-1830s the business community and the legislature sought to more effectively connect the vast coal deposits of the Wyoming Valley to the Delaware basin cities, noted above.</p><br>
<p>The project included four major construction hurdles and three new railroad projects, for which LC&N created a new subsidiary, the Lehigh and Susquehanna Railroad (LH&S) to implement; north to south these were:</p><br>
<p>the Rail connection from the Pennsylvania Canal landing docks at Pittston, PA to an assembly railyard at Ashley, PA</p><br>
<p>the Ashley Planes incline plane railway to Solomon Gap below Penobscot Knob peak and through a mile long cutting, a man-made ravine over 100 ft deep connecting to an assembly rail yard in Mountain Top, PA</p><br>
<p>a marshaling yard at Mountain Top with a rail road running down a ribs of a ridgeline down to White Haven and the new upper canal docks, with a turn around staging yard there at the upper canal loading docks. In 1855, as alternative sources opened to steal market share, the canal reached its peak of more than one million tons of cargo. After that, coal mined in the Schuylkill Valley supplanted coal supplied by the Lehigh Canal.</p><br>
<h4>Demise of the Grand Canal</h4><br>
<p>The demise of the Grand Canal (the upper and lower canals together) had little to do with competition from railroads but began when an inordinately wet spring repeatedly overfilled various earthen dam reservoirs until one above White Haven let go triggering a cascade of failing dams as the catastrophic flood of June 4, 1862. Loss of life is placed at around 100 or 200 people in the villages and canal works below, depending upon the source. The Pennsylvania State Legislature stepped in and forbade the rebuilding of the upper canal. The canal was used as a means of transportation until the 1940s (about a decade after other similar canals ceased operations), making it the last fully functioning towpath canal in North America. In 1962, most of it was sold to private and public organizations for recreational use.</p><br>
<h3>Recent history</h3><br>
<p>Several segments of the canal were listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1979, under listing names "Lehigh Canal", "Carbon County Section of the Lehigh Canal" (#79002179), "Lehigh Canal: Eastern Section Glendon and Abbott Street Industrial Sites" (#78002437), "Lehigh Canal; Allentown to Hopeville Section" (#79002307) and others. For the Carbon County section, also known as "Upper Canal Lock #1 to Lower Canal Dam #3", the listing included 30 contributing structures.</p><br>
<p>The eastern section, now preserved and made into a recreational boating area, runs along the Lehigh River from Hopeville down to the confluence of the Lehigh and Delaware Rivers in Easton, Pennsylvania and includes the Chain Bridge, which was separately NRHP-listed in 1974. The eastern section listing is for a 260 acre area with three contributing buildings, seven contributing sites, and 11 contributing structures.</p><br>
<p>The Allentown to Hopeville section is a 53.9 acre area that includes Greek Revival and vernacular Federal architecture among its one contributing building and 13 contributing structures.</p><br>
<h2>Present-day activities</h2><br>
<p>An 8-mile (13 km) segment of the canal towpath has been converted into a multi-use trail that runs from Freemansburg through Bethlehem to Allentown. The trail runs along the river and active railroad tracks. A section near Jim Thorpe is accessible to recreational users. The final section in Easton is maintained and operated by the National Canal Museum. Other short sections are accessible, but there are parts of the canal towpath that have been worn by the elements and are not safe to access.</p><br>
<p>Victoria Strait is a strait in northern Canada that lies in Nunavut off the mainland in the Arctic Ocean. It is between Victoria Island to the west and King William Island to the east. From the north the strait links the M&#39;Clintock Channel and the Larsen Sound with the Queen Maud Gulf to the south. The strait is about 100 mi long and anywhere from 50 to 80 mi wide.</p><br>
<p>The strait is wide, with almost no islands, save for the rather large Royal Geographical Society Island near the Queen Maud Gulf at the extreme south of the strait. The strait has never been comprehensively surveyed, however charted potions indicate several patches where the water is only 30 ft of depth. Ships drawing up to 30 ft have navigated the strait, but it is made very difficult by the ice. Most of the year the strait is covered with rough, heavy ice. Much of this is polar ice which has flowed down the McClintock Channel from the Viscount Melville Sound. Large-scale breakup of the ice in the strait begins by late July and continues into late September when it begins to freeze again.</p><br>
<p>Near the entrance of Victoria Strait was where HMS Terror and HMS Erebus became trapped during John Franklin&#39;s expedition and were abandoned in 1848. Due to the hazards of the strait, a longer route was used which went around King William Island. This route was easier despite having an even shallower bottom. In 1967, the Victoria Strait was used for the first time by an icebreaker, the John A. Macdonald, when travelling to the western Arctic to assist shipping. It was crossed again by the same icebreaker in 1975, and later in 1976 by the icebreakers CCGS Louis S. St-Laurent and CCGS J.E. Bernier.</p><br>
<p>Sallows is a fell in the English Lake District, rising between the valleys of Kentmere and Troutbeck. It is the highest point in the upland area to the south of Garburn Pass, variously termed Kentmere Park and Applethwaite Common on Ordnance Survey maps.</p><br>
<h2>Topography</h2><br>
<p>Sallows and its sister fell Sour Howes together form a horse-shoe shaped mass, with the opening to the south east. This is the catchment of Park Beck, a tributary of the River Kent. Sallows lies to the north of the beck and connects around the head of the little valley via the ridge of Moor Head. The southern flank of Sallows, above Park Beck, is smooth and grassy, other than for the remains of a quarry. The access track to these workings is still in existence, providing the easiest access from the east.</p><br>
<p>The eastern end of Sallows falls in long easy slopes for half a mile toward the Kent valley, although there are a couple of low crags, particularly on Scour Rigg. The high ground then turns southerly at the subsidiary top at Mould Rigg (1,150 ft), finally petering out at the confluence of Park Beck and the Kent. The slopes above the Kent are steep and predominantly covered in broadleaved plantations.</p><br>
<p>Below these trees the river broadens into the oddly shaped Kentmere Tarn. A natural waterbody was drained in the 1830s to extend the available farmland, but the scheme failed and merely resulted in an area of marsh. It was later found that the tarnbed was rich in diatomite, a mineral used to produce thermal insulation. Extraction began in the 1930s and continued until 1971, producing the lines of the present man-made tarn.</p><br>
<p>To the north of Sallows is Garburn Pass (Byway open to all traffic), the original route for pedestrian and horse-borne trade between Troutbeck and Kentmere. Whilst designated as a bridleway between 2006 and 2009, the road had seen considerable use from off-road vehicles, an activity causing controversy between drivers and walkers. From the pass summit at Garburn Nook (1,466 ft), the land rises northwards up a broad ridge to Yoke and Ill Bell.</p><br>
<h2>Summit</h2><br>
<p>The summit of Sallows is covered in grass and heather, the highest point occupied by a curving ridge of shale about thirty feet long. This in turn carries a small cairn. There is a good view westwards to the Scafell and Coniston Old Man groups, with distant sightings from Black Combe to the Pennines.</p><br>
<h2>Ascents</h2><br>
<p>In addition to climbs from Kentmere or Ings via the quarry track, Sallows is easily reached from the summit of Garburn Pass. A narrow path also leads around Moor Head to Sour Howes, allowing a circuit of Park Beck to be made.</p><br>
<p>The Old Scotch Church, also known as the Tualatin Plains Presbyterian Church, is a church and national historic site located in an unincorporated part of Washington County, Oregon, near Hillsboro, Oregon, United States. The church dates to 1873 while the church structure with an eight-sided steeple dates to 1878. A cemetery on the church grounds holds the graves of church members and local pioneer settlers of the Tualatin Plains, including Joseph Meek.</p><br>
<h2>Organization</h2><br>
<p>The Tualatin Plains Presbyterian Church was organized in 1873 with the first service on November 16. This first service was held at the four-room Columbia Academy schoolhouse with the Reverend George Ross as pastor, four miles (6 km) northwest of the present site. Services were held at the academy until a permanent site for construction of a house of worship could be located by the congregation.</p><br>
<p>These first members of the congregation came primarily from the same area in Aberdeenshire, Scotland, which is located west of Aberdeen. In Scotland, they had been members of the Free Church of Scotland. After immigrating to the United States and traveling to Oregon, they settled near each other in the Tualatin Valley. Because of the settlers&#39; Scottish origin, their church building acquired its common name "The Old Scotch Church." The twelve original Scottish pioneers were: Mr. and Mrs. William Chalmers and their 11 children, their youngest Catherine was the first buried there. Mr. and Mrs. James Smith, Rev. and Mrs. George Ross, Mr. and Mrs. George Alexander, their daughter Eliza, Miss Alexander and John Milne. Eight of the twelve founders and many of their descendents are buried in the cemetery surrounding the church.</p><br>
<h2>Structure</h2><br>
<p>In 1876, 1 acre of land was donated to the church by Jacob Hoover to provide a place for a permanent church building and cemetery. On March 11, 1878, the church board began the process of building a permanent building by authorizing an estimate to determine the costs of building a church structure. His design included buttresses, stained glass windows, a steep roof, and the signature eight-sided steeple. Construction commenced with much of the material and labor being donated by the congregation. The stained glass windows in the building were imported from Scotland. The church building, adjacent to McKay Creek, was completed in 1878 and dedicated that same year. A church bell was added in 1926 to the steeple.</p><br>
<h3>Expansions</h3><br>
<p>In 1905, the church was expanded when an annex was built onto the back of the building, adding additional classrooms for Sunday school. Then in 1940 the annex was expanded and a half-basement added, followed by a second addition in 1955 that included the first indoor restrooms at the church. From 1959 to 1960 the building was raised, allowing for a full basement to by completed. In 1984 construction was completed that added four classrooms to the church structure.</p><br>
<h2>Cemetery</h2><br>
<p>Many pioneers of the Oregon Country are also buried in the cemetery. Joseph Meek is one of the best known of those buried at the Old Scotch Church. Meek died on June 20, 1875, and was originally buried at his homestead, located near a historic marker dedicated to him along the Sunset Highway. Meek was a mountain man, a member of Oregon’s Provisional Government, and the first USA Marshall of the Oregon Territory. After his land was sold, his remains were moved and re-interred at the church’s cemetery. The cemetery also contains a cairn added in 1985 as a memorial to ancestors in Scotland who were massacred at Glen Coe in 1692.</p><br>
<h2>Currently</h2><br>
<p>This structure is one of the oldest continuously used churches in the state. The Tualatin Plains Presbyterian Church still holds services in the Old Scotch Church building every Sunday.</p><br>
<p>Union College is a heritage-listed residential college at University of Queensland, 38 Upland Road, St Lucia, Queensland, Australia. It was designed by James Birrell and built from 1964 to 1974. It was added to the Queensland Heritage Register on 6 December 2004.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The Union College building at the University of Queensland campus was built in five major stages between 1964 and 1972 to the design of James Birrell, Staff Architect for the University between 1961 and 1966.</p><br>
<p>Proposals for a Queensland university were first made in the 1870s, but the idea did not have strong public or government support in a new colony where tertiary education was not a funding priority. An Act of State Parliament eventually established the new University of Queensland on December 10, 1909. Sir William MacGregor, the incoming Governor of Queensland, was appointed as the first Chancellor. Before his arrival, it had been decided to purchase and renovate "Fernberg", a house at Bardon, as the new Government House and to use the vacated government residence and part of its grounds at Gardens Point for the University. This was a controversial decision and many thought that the building and domain were unsuitable and too small for the purpose. There was little room for expansion and there were conflicts with the neighbouring Brisbane Central Technical College. In 1910 the first teaching faculties were created and in early 1911 the first students enrolled, although relocation was already being discussed.</p><br>
<p>Victoria Park had been chosen in 1906 as a campus site, though the high cost of preparing the steeply sloping land for building presented problems and Yeronga Park and St Lucia were also considered as options. In 1926 the difficulty of obtaining a suitable permanent site was solved when Dr James Mayne and Miss Mary Mayne made £50,000 available to the Brisbane City Council to resume land at St Lucia and present it to the University. In 1930 the University Senate handed over Victoria Park, less eleven acres reserved for a medical school, to the Brisbane City Council in exchange for the St Lucia site.</p><br>
<p>During the years of the Depression that followed, government funding and staff numbers were reduced, although student enrolments trebled between 1923 and 1933. There was no prospect of building on the new site until 1935 when the Premier, William Forgan Smith, announced that the Queensland Government would undertake construction. The University Senate committee produced a preliminary design and the Sydney firm of Hennessy, Hennessy & Co was appointed as architects for the project. They produced the Great Court plan with its sandstone, classically inspired buildings that remains central to the University and which influenced later building.</p><br>
<p>The foundation stone was laid in 1937 but the Second World War disrupted work and the main building was used as the headquarters of General Sir Thomas Blamey, head of the Australian Defence forces. Work had re-commenced by 1948 and the Forgan Smith Building was officially opened in May 1949 followed by other major buildings of the Great Court in the 1950s and 60s.</p><br>
<p>Residential Colleges to accommodate the students had been established for some time on the edges of the inner city area but it was intended that they should relocate when permanent sites were available on the new campus. Sites had been allocated for Emmanuel, St Johns, Kings, St Leos, Duchesne and Womens Colleges, although the war had halted construction plans, as it had the development of the University buildings. Religious institutions ran all but Women&#39;s College and all accommodated only a single gender.</p><br>
<p>In 1943 the University of Queensland Students Union planned a non-denominational Union College as an alternative to traditional religious colleges. It was expected that after the war student numbers would increase greatly and that accommodation would be in short supply. A Student Housing Committee was formed. It was intended that the new college should be owned by the Union, run by a Warden elected by the students and approved by the university Senate, and governed by a representative body of students. However, land had only been allocated at St Lucia for the six colleges existing when plans were drawn up in the 1930s. High building costs also delayed the construction of a new building and the Union opened a student hostel in rented premises in Wickham Terrace in 1947. By 1950 the hostel had gained College status and in 1952, the Union requested that land be allocated for the college on the St Lucia campus. Land opposite the St Johns College site and bordered by the no 1 oval and a grove of native trees was reserved for Union College in December 1952. Building schemes were considered in 1953, but the cost was too great and the Union purchased two large houses in Wickham Terrace in April 1956, after the premises they had formerly rented was sold.</p><br>
<p>In January 1958, a sub committee was set up to consider building schemes, though these could not be implemented until the 1963-66 triennium. The buildings at Wickham Terrace had proved to be a good investment and the loan was paid out by 1960. It was decided to survey the St Lucia site, though the University&#39;s Staff Architect, James Birrell, questioned its suitability. He suggested that "if the Union College were built along the west frontage of the Tree Reserve in buildings artfully arranged to avoid destruction of trees, it would be on elevated ground, not overlooked by surrounding country, associated only with residential development and on good foundation." This new site was approved and transferred to the college in December and Birrell began preparation of plans for the college.</p><br>
<p>James Peter Birrell was born in Melbourne and studied architecture at Melbourne Technical College. Following World War Two he worked as a draughtsman for the State, then the Commonwealth Works Departments. As a cadet architect with the Commonwealth Department of Works he was accepted as a fourth year student at the University of Melbourne. After graduating in 1951 he graduated and worked briefly as Resident Architect at the Commonwealth Serum Laboratories. In 1952 he co-founded Architecture and Arts with Peter Burns, Helen O&#39;Donnell and Norman Lehey. Transferred to Canberra, he worked on the design of schools, telephone exchanges, group housing, and alterations to the Canberra Repertory Theatre. Moving back to Melbourne in 1953, he worked on post office buildings. Birrell exhibited with the Contemporary Art Society and helped to organise a tour for them before being transferred to Darwin to take charge of the Commonwealth Department drawing office. Here he designed schools, hospital extensions, shopping centres and various ancillary structures.</p><br>
<p>In 1955 he resigned from the Commonwealth Works Department and was appointed Architect in Charge of the drawing office of the Brisbane City Council&#39;s Architectural Branch. While with the Council, he designed a large number of public buildings, many of which were illustrated in national design journals, and included such innovative buildings as the former Toowong Municipal Library Building, the Centenary Pool Complex and the Wickham Terrace Carpark.</p><br>
<p>Birrell was Architect to the University of Queensland from 1961–66, overseeing the universitys second major phase of construction development. Beginning part-time lecturing at the Universitys Department of Architecture and at Queensland Institute of Technology, he also worked on the Master Plan for the expansion of the University. His most notable buildings designed in this period include Union College, the JD Story Administration Building, Staff House and the Agriculture and Entomology Building (now the Hartley Teakle Building). As part of his work for the University, he designed the James Cook University in Townsville in 1963, and continued to design buildings for the St Lucia campus. In 1965 Birrell was appointed President of the Australian Planning Institute. In 1966 he designed the Union Theatre and Hartley Teakle Building before moving into private practice.</p><br>
<p>By July 1963, Birrell had developed a plan for Union College that he believed would provide a residential collegiate atmosphere without undue institutional appearance. This has been achieved by meandering the dormitory block in a more or less rambling fashion so that it encloses in effect two cloistered courtyards, one of which overlooks no 2 oval across the top of the communal facilities building and the other, the residential section of Upland Road. Incidentally, this meandering avoids the removal of any substantial trees.</p><br>
<p>The facilities block has been arranged along even contours one floor lower than the dormitory building so that at no point are the bedroom outlooks detrimentally affected. Service entrance is at the north so that service facilities are grouped against the future substation area that adjoins the sites, hence buffering incompatible areas from the College. The facilities block requires the removal of two trees only.</p><br>
<p>This plan represented the cutting edge of international ideas on architecture in respect of its form and the mode of its construction and generated a considerable amount of interest in the building and design industries. It achieved a combination of good quality design and economy while responding imaginatively to its site. In an era when buildings in Queensland were generally constructed on a cleared and levelled site, not only the placement, but also the design of the college buildings was influenced by the existing topography and vegetation, which became part of the design. Union College would affect the funding of college buildings throughout Australia. The tender of T J Watkins was accepted in June 1964 and the first stage was still being completed when Education Minister, Jack Pizzey, officially opened it in July 1965. The first stage comprised part of the Common Facilities wing residential blocks and staff quarters at a cost of £240,000 ($480,000). The new college was adjudged one of the ten best buildings in Australia for 1965 by the Australian Journal of Architecture and Arts.</p><br>
<p>Union College marked a departure from the design of other residential colleges on campus. Innovative features ranged from the large one piece pivoting windows to the flat roof intended to be used for living and recreational space. Forms were simple and robust and the stone, timber, off form concrete and metals chosen were intended to weather to soft tones of grey with contrasts in texture.</p><br>
<p>The college was not only innovative in its form and use of materials and in its response to the site, but also in concept. Previous designs for student accommodation in Queensland were more conservative and had followed traditional institutional models. Union College had courtyards, recreational and tutorial facilities and student units, providing a modern lifestyle for adult students. As an extension of this approach, in 1968 Union College became the first coeducational residential college in Queensland (It should be noted that in 1967 University Hall at the Townsville University College opened for student accommodation as a coeducational residential college &lt;John Lee - President University Hall Students Association 1968). Although this was a controversial move in the conservative atmosphere of the time, this and other features of life at Union College, innovative in the 1960s and 70s, are now the norm as university accommodation more closely reflects daily life in the wider community.</p><br>
<p>Extensions were carried out during the 1963-66 triennium including extending the facilities wing, landscaping and constructing the warden&#39;s residence on the ground floor of block F. The tender of C P Hornick and Sons was accepted in May 1966 for an overall cost of $77,463.</p><br>
<p>The next stage comprised construction of Block C (floors GHJ and KLM). The tender of Harris James was accepted in July 1967 and the work was completed in June 1968 at a cost of $412,815. Half of the rooms in this residential block were made available to women students, though they were at first accommodated on different floors to the men.</p><br>
<p>In June 1968 the Brisbane City Council purchased the two old college buildings in Wickham Terrace at a cost of $265,000. Planning for the 4th stage of construction began in 1969. This was to complete the residential wings and build units for married tutors and tutorial rooms. Federal funding of $150,000 was granted for this stage (PQR floors) and the tender of C P Hornick was accepted in December 1969. The completed cost was $397,344.</p><br>
<p>Plans were then begun for the completion of the college (XYZ floors). Harris James tender was accepted in January 1973 and work was finalized in 1974. The college as a whole was estimated to have cost $1,500,000 to build.</p><br>
<p>In the late 1990s a detached brick function room with a tiled, hipped roof was constructed to the rear of the kitchen. It was also designed by Birrell, but does not match the earlier buildings in form or materials.</p><br>
<p>Some changes have taken place, though the buildings are substantially intact and retain their character. The off-form concrete has been painted with sealant. Trios of hopper windows have replaced the majority of the large pivoted windowpanes that formed a distinctive feature of the design. An unsympathetic security fence has been added at the south.</p><br>
<p>The landmark trees, which were an important part of the original design concept, remain though secondary planting of has been added.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>The University of Queensland is located on a large allotment on a bend of the Brisbane River at St Lucia. The Great Court is sited to dominate the rise of the land and have a commanding view of the surrounding campus buildings, the playing fields and the river beyond. The residential colleges are grouped to the south along the river with Union College set slightly further back.</p><br>
<p>Union College comprises several buildings. The two main buildings are linear in form and have an extruded appearance. The facilities block is a single-storey building facing north-east, which flows through underneath the lower storey of the residential block. The structure has a steel sheeted roof supported by an off-form concrete portal frame infilled with Mt Coot-tha bluestone. This type of structure creates a large open-plan internal space. The floors are parquetry, the ceilings are lined with strawboard and the joinery is blackbean. There is a distinctive brick fireplace with four arched openings over a central hearth.</p><br>
<p>There are courtyards formed between the angles of the buildings. Raised areas set with trees and surrounded by bluestone retaining walls preserve original hillocks on the site. The existing major trees have been supplemented by plantings of other trees, shrubs and flowering plants</p><br>
<p>The residential block is a three-storey building supported on off-form concrete pilotis. Sections of it are infilled below as the ground level drops away, but the three storey residential section is constant. The plan form of the building follows different angles, facing variously north-east, east, and north, creating courtyards that contain large mature trees and gardens. The pilotis support dark manganese brick internal walls. Open stairwells with off-form concrete external balustrades are located at regular intervals along the building. The external areas of off-form concrete have been painted. Windows are metal framed, with the original windows composed of a large panel spanning the window space at the top with two smaller windows below. All are pivoted horizontally and double-glazed with Venetian blinds enclosed. Most of the upper panels of the original windows have been replaced with triple hopper windows. The roof is reinforced concrete, and ceilings are sprayed vermiculite.</p><br>
<p>The former staff house lies between the accommodation and facilities blocks and echoes the form and materials of the accommodation blocks. It is.is a two-storey building constructed of brick and off form concrete with steel framed windows.</p><br>
<h2>Heritage listing</h2><br>
<p>Union College was listed on the Queensland Heritage Register on 6 December 2004 having satisfied the following criteria.</p><br>
<p>The place is important in demonstrating the evolution or pattern of Queensland&#39;s history.</p><br>
<p>Union College marks an important stage in the modern development of the University of Queensland. An innovative residential college designed in 1963, it was modern and functional in concept and construction and responds to the vegetation and topography of its site. It marked a departure from college design on this campus and reflected international ideas on architecture.</p><br>
<p>The place is important because of its aesthetic significance.</p><br>
<p>Union College was highly praised at the time of its building as visually pleasing, well conceived and innovative structure.</p><br>
<p>The place is important in demonstrating a high degree of creative or technical achievement at a particular period.</p><br>
<p>Union College was highly praised at the time of its building as visually pleasing, well conceived and innovative structure. The design was innovative in its interaction with the site, in its form and use of materials and represented a high degree of creative achievement, recognised by a High Commendation award by Arts and Architecture journal as one of the best ten new buildings in Australia at the time.</p><br>
<p>The place has a strong or special association with a particular community or cultural group for social, cultural or spiritual reasons.</p><br>
<p>Union College has social significance as an important component of university life to the many people who have resided there as students or as teachers and administrators. It also represented a departure from tradition in the provision of a modern lifestyle for students and as the first residential college in Queensland to offer accommodation to both men and women.</p><br>
<p>The place has a special association with the life or work of a particular person, group or organisation of importance in Queensland&#39;s history.</p><br>
<p>Union College is important as a major work of James Birrell, an architect of national stature and repute, and is evidence of his thought and practice. Birrell was Staff Architect for the University of Queensland when he selected the site and designed Union College and was involved with the master planning of the campus. He had a design philosophy that integrated structures and landscape as evidenced by this building. The work of James Birrell, particularly for the Brisbane City Council and the University of Queensland is widely held to be influential and innovative.</p><br>
<p>Chesterfield Islands  is a French archipelago of New Caledonia located in the Coral Sea, 550 km northwest of Grande Terre, the main island of New Caledonia. The archipelago is 120 km long and 70 km broad, made up of 11 uninhabited islets and many reefs. The land area of the islands is less than 10 km².</p><br>
<p>During periods of lowered sea level during the Pleistocene ice ages an island of considerable size (Greater Chesterfield Island) occupied the location of the archipelago.</p><br>
<p>Bellona Reef, 164 km south-southeast of Chesterfield, is geologically separated from the Chesterfield archipelago but commonly included.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>The reef complex is named after the ship Chesterfield, commanded by Matthew Bowes Alt, which explored the Coral Sea in the 1790s.</p><br>
<h2>Location</h2><br>
<p>The Chesterfield Islands, sometimes referred to as the Chesterfield Reefs or Chesterfield Group, are the most important of a number of uninhabited coral sand cays. Some are awash and liable to shift with the wind while others are stabilized by the growth of grass, creepers and low trees. The reefs extend from 19˚ to 22˚S between 158–160˚E in the southern Coral Sea halfway between Australia and New Caledonia. The Chesterfield Reefs are now part of the territory of New Caledonia while the islands farther west are part of the Australian Coral Sea Islands Territory.</p><br>
<p>Chesterfield lagoon, located between 19˚00 and 20˚30 S and 158˚10&#39; and 159˚E covers an area of approximately 3500 km. A barrier reef surrounds the lagoon, interrupted by wide passes except on its eastern side where it is open for over 20 nmi. The major part of the lagoon is exposed to trade winds and to the southeastern oceanic swell. The lagoon is relatively deep with a mean depth of 51 m. The depth increases from south to north.</p><br>
<p>Chesterfield Reefs complex consists of the Bellona Reef complex to the south (South, Middle and Northwest Bellona Reef) and the Bampton Reef complex.</p><br>
<h3>Bellona Reefs</h3><br>
<p>Captain Matthew Boyd of Bellona named the reefs for his ship. He had delivered convicts to New South Wales in 1793 and was on his way to China to pick up a cargo at Canton to take back to Britain for the British East India Company when he passed the reefs in February–March 1793.</p><br>
<p>West Point 21&deg;52&prime;S latitude, 159&deg;25&prime;E longitude,</p><br>
<p>Olry Reef 21&deg;26&prime;S latitude, 159&deg;34&prime;E longitude,</p><br>
<p>Middle Bellona Reefs 21&deg;25&prime;S latitude, 158&deg;25&prime;E longitude,</p><br>
<p>Observatory Cay 21&deg;24&prime;S latitude, 158&deg;51&prime;E longitude,</p><br>
<p>Booby Reef 21&deg;01&prime;S latitude, 158&deg;34&prime;E longitude,</p><br>
<p>Northwest Bellona Reef 20&deg;52&prime;S latitude, 158&deg;28&prime;E longitude,</p><br>
<p>Noel Bank 20&deg;32&prime;S latitude, 158&deg;34&prime;E longitude,</p><br>
<p>South Bellona Reef or West Point {{coord|21|52|S|159|25|E|type:isle|name=Bellona Reefs - West Point}}, Approximately 3 m tall sand islet. Lieutenant John Lamb, R.N., Commander of the ship Baring, spent three days in the neighborhood of Booby and Bellona Shoals and reefs. Lamb took soundings between nineteen and forty-five fathoms (114–270 ft), and frequently passed shoals, upon which the sea was breaking. Lamb defined the limits of the rocky ground as the parallels of 20°40′ and 21°50′ and the meridians of 158°15′ and 159°30′. He also saw a sandy islet, surrounded by a chain of rocks, at 21°24½′ south and 158°30′ east. The ship Minerva measured the water&#39;s depth as eight fathoms (48 ft), with the appearance of shallower water to the southwest; this last danger is in a line between the two shoals at about longitude 159°20′ east, as described by James Horsburgh.</p><br>
<p>Observatory Cay {{coord|21|24|S|158|51|E|type:isle|name=Bellona Reefs - Observatory Cay}}, 800 m long and 2 m high, lies on the Middle Bellona Reefs at the southern end of the Chesterfield Reefs and 180 nm east of Kenn Reef.</p><br>
<h3>Minerva Shoal</h3><br>
<p>*Minerva Shoal{{coord|20|55|S|159|22|E|type:isle|name=Minerva Shoal}},</p><br>
<h3>Chesterfield Reefs</h3><br>
<p>*South Elbow or Loop Islet{{coord|19|59|S|158|28|E|type:isle|name=Chesterfield Reefs - Loop Islet}},</p><br>
<p>*Anchorage Islets {{coord|19|54|S|158|28|E|type:isle|name=Chesterfield Reefs - Anchorage Islets}},</p><br>
<p>*Passage Islet (Bennett Islet){{coord|19|55|S|158|22|E|type:isle|name=Chesterfield Reefs - Passage Islet (Bennett Islet)}},</p><br>
<p>*Long Island {{coord|19|53|S|158|19|E|type:isle|name=Chesterfield Reefs - Long Island}},</p><br>
<p>The Chesterfield Reefs is a loose collection of elongated reefs that enclose a deep, semi-sheltered, lagoon. The reefs on the west and northwest are known as the Chesterfield Reefs; those on the east and north being the Bampton Reefs. The Chesterfield Reefs form a structure measuring 120 km in length (northeast to southwest) and 70 km across (east to west).</p><br>
<p>There are numerous cays occurring amongst the reefs of both the Chesterfield and Bampton Reefs. These include: Loop Islet, Renard Cay, Skeleton Cay, Bennett Island, Passage Islet, Long Island, the Avon Isles, the Anchorage Islets and Bampton Island.</p><br>
<p>Long Island {{coord|19|53|S|158|19|E|type:isle|name=Chesterfield Reefs - Long Island}}, 10 nm NW of Loop Islet, is the largest of the Chesterfield Islands, and is 1400 to 1800 m long but no more than 100 m across and 9 m high. In May 1859 Henry Mangles Denham found Long Island was “a heap of &#39;foraminifera&#39; densely covered with stunted bush‑trees with leaves as large as cabbage plants, spreading 12 feet (3.7 m) and reaching as high, upon trunks 9 inches (23 cm) diameter... The trees around the margin of this island were leafless, as if from the sea‑fowl." Although wooded in the 1850s, it was stripped during guano extraction in the 1870s and was said to be covered in grass with only two coconut trees and some ruins at the south end early in the 20th century. The vegetation was growing again by 1957 when the remaining ruins were confused with those of a temporary automatic meteorological station established in the same area by the Americans between 1944 and 1948. Terry Walker reported that by 1990 there was a ring of low Tournefortia trees growing around the margin, herbs, grass and shrubs in the interior, and still a few exotic species including coconuts.</p><br>
<p>South of Long Island and Loop Islet there are three small low islets up to 400 m across followed, after a narrow channel, by Passage or Bennett Island, which is 12 m high and was a whaling station in the first half of the 20th century. Several sand cays lie on the reef southeast of the islet.</p><br>
<h3>Avon Isles</h3><br>
<p>*Avon Isles (Northwest Point) {{coord|19|32|S|158|15|E|type:isle|name=Avon Isles}},</p><br>
<p>*Avon Isles (south)</p><br>
<p>The two Avon Isles {{coord|19|32|S|158|15|E|type:isle|name=Avon Isles}}, some 188 m in diameter and 5 m high to the top of the dense vegetation, are situated 21 n.m. north of Long Island. They were seen by Mr. Sumner, Master of the ship Avon, on 18 September 1823, and are described by him as being three-quarters of a mile in circumference, twenty feet high, and the sea between them twenty fathoms deep. At four miles (7 km) northeast by north from them the water was twelve fathoms (72 feet) deep, and at the same time they saw a reef ten or fifteen miles (20–30 km) to the southeast, with deep water between it and the islets. A boat landed on the south-westernmost islet, and found it inhabited only by birds, but clothed with shrubs and wild grapes. By observation, these islands were found to lie in latitude 19 degrees 40 minutes, and longitude 158 degrees 6 minutes. The Avon Isles are described by Denham in 1859 as “densely covered with stunted trees and creeping plants and grass, and... crowded with the like species of birds."</p><br>
<h3>Bampton Reefs</h3><br>
<p>*Bampton Reefs</p><br>
<p>*Bampton Island {{coord|19|07|S|158|36|E|type:isle|name=Bampton Island}},</p><br>
<p>*North Bampton Reef {{coord|19|03|S|158|43|E|type:isle|name=North Bampton Reef}},</p><br>
<p>*Northeast Bampton Reef {{coord|19|06|S|159|03|E|type:isle|name=Northeast Bampton Reef}},</p><br>
<p>*Renard Island {{coord|19|14|S|158|58|E|type:isle|name=Bampton Reefs - Renard Island}},</p><br>
<p>*Skeleton Cay {{coord|19|27|S|158|57|E|type:isle|name=Bampton Reefs - Skeleton Cay}}</p><br>
<p>Renard Island North Bampton Reef {{coord|19|14|S|158|58|E|type:isle|name=Bampton Reefs - Renard Island}}, Approximately 6 m tall sand islet lies 45 nmi northeast of the Avon Isles and is 273 m long, 180 m across and also 6 m high to the top of the bushes.</p><br>
<p>Southeast Bampton Reef {{coord|19|08|S|158|40|E|type:isle|name=Southeast Bampton Reef}} Sand Cay 5 m elevation</p><br>
<p>Loop Islet {{coord|19|59|S|158|28|E|type:isle|name=Loop Islet}}, which lies 85 nm farther north near the south end of the central islands of Chesterfield Reefs, is a small, flat, bushy islet 3 m high where a permanent automatic weather station was established by the Service Météorologique de Nouméa in October 1968. Terry Walker reported the presence of a grove of Casuarinas in 1990.</p><br>
<p>Anchorage Islets are a group of islets five nautical miles (9 km) north of Loop Islet. The third from the north, about 400 m long and 12 m high, shelters the best anchorage.</p><br>
<p>Passage (Bonnet) Island reaches a vegetative height of 12 m</p><br>
<p>Bampton Island {{coord|19|07|S|158|36|E|type:isle|name=Bampton Island}}, lies on Bampton Reefs 20 nm NW of Renard Island. It is 180 m long, 110 m across and 5 m high. It had trees when discovered in 1793, but has seldom been visited since then except by castaways.</p><br>
<p>The reefs and islands west of the Chesterfield Islands, the closest being Mellish Reef with Herald&#39;s Beacon Islet at {{coord|17|25|S|155|52|E|type:isle|name=Herald&#39;s Beacon Islet}}, at a distance of 180 nm northwest of Bampton Island, belong to the Coral Sea Islands Territory.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>18th Century</h3><br>
<p>Booby Reef in the center of the eastern chain of reefs and islets comprising Chesterfield Reefs appears to have been discovered first by Lt. Henry Lidgbird Ball in HMS Supply on the way from Sydney to Batavia (modern day Jakarta) in 1790. The reefs to the south were found next by Mathew Boyd in the convict ship Bellona on his way from Sydney to Canton (modern day Guangzhou) in February or March 1793.</p><br>
<p>The following June, William Wright Bampton became embayed for five days at the north end of Chesterfield Reefs in the Indiaman Shah Hormuzeer, together with Mathew Bowes Alt in the whaler Chesterfield.</p><br>
<p>Bampton reported two islets with trees and “a number of birds of different species around the ships, several of them the same kind as at Norfolk Island”.</p><br>
<h3>19th Century</h3><br>
<p>The reefs continued to present a hazard to shipping plying between Australia and Canton or India (where cargo was collected on the way home to Europe). The southern reefs were surveyed by Captain Henry Mangles Denham in the Herald from 1858 to 1860.</p><br>
<p>He made the natural history notes discussed below. The northern reefs were charted by Lieutenant G.E.Richards in HMS Renard in 1878 and the French the following year. Denham&#39;s conclusions are engraved on British Admiralty Chart 349:</p><br>
<p>The area is a wintering ground for numerous Humpback whales and smaller numbers of Sperm whales. During the 19th century the Chesterfield Islands were visited by increasing numbers of whalers during the off season in New Zealand. L. Thiercelin reported that in July 1863 the islets only had two or three plants, including a bush 3–4 m high, and were frequented by turtles weighing 60 to 100 kg. Many eggs were being taken regularly by several English, two French and one American whaler. On another occasion there were no less than eight American whalers. A collection of birds said to have been made by Surgeon Jourde of the French whaler Général d’Hautpoul on the Brampton Shoals in July 1861 was subsequently brought by Gerard Krefft (1862) to the Australian Museum, but clearly not all the specimens came from there.</p><br>
<p>On 27 October 1862, the British Government granted an exclusive concession to exploit the guano on Lady Elliot Island, Wreck Reef, Swain Reefs, Raine Island, Bramble Cay, Brampton Shoal, and Pilgrim Island to the Anglo Australian Guano Company organized by the whaler Dr. William Crowther in Hobart, Tasmania. They were apparently most active on Bird Islet (Wreck Reef) and Lady Elliot and Raine Islands (Hutchinson, 1950), losing five ships at Bird Islet between 1861 and 1882 (Crowther 1939). It is not clear that they ever took much guano from the Chesterfield Islands unless it was obtained from Higginson, Desmazures et Cie, discussed below.</p><br>
<p>When in 1877 Joshua William North also found guano on the Chesterfield Reefs, Alcide Jean Desmazures persuaded Governor Orly of New Caledonia to send the warship La Seudre to annex them. There were estimated to be about 185,000 cu m of guano on Long Island and a few hundred tons elsewhere, and 40% to 62% phosphate (Chevron, 1880), which was extracted between 1879 and 1888 by Higginson, Desmazures et Cie of Nouméa (Godard, nd), leaving Long Island stripped bare for a time (Anon., 1916).</p><br>
<h3>20th and 21st Century</h3><br>
<p>Apparently the islands were then abandoned until Commander Arzur in the French warship Dumont d’Urville surveyed the Chesterfield Reefs and erected a plaque in 1939. In September 1944, American forces installed a temporary automatic meteorological station at the south end of Long Island, which was abandoned again at the end of World War II.</p><br>
<p>The first biological survey was made of Long Island by Cohic during four hours ashore on 26 September 1957.</p><br>
<p>It revealed, among other things, a variety of avian parasites including a widespread Ornithodoros tick belonging to a genus carrying arboviruses capable of causing illness in humans. This island and the Anchorage Islets were also visited briefly during a survey of New Caledonian coral reefs in 1960 and 1962.</p><br>
<p>An aerial magnetic survey was made of the Chesterfield area in 1966, and a seismic survey in 1972, which apparently have not been followed up yet. In November 1968 another automatic meteorological station was installed on Loop Islet where 10 plants were collected by A.E. Ferré. Since then the Centre de Nouméa of the Office de la Recherche Scientifique et Technique Outre Mer has arranged for periodic surveys and others when this installation is serviced.</p><br>
<p>From 1982-1992 Terry Walker carried out methodical surveys of the Coral Sea islets with the intention of producing a seabird atlas. He visited the central islands of the Chesterfield Reefs in December 1990.</p><br>
<p>An amateur radio DX-pedition (TX3X) was conducted on one of the islands in October 2015.</p><br>
<h2>Known Shipwrecks on the Reef</h2><br>
<p>Unless otherwise noted, information in this section is from Coral Sea and Northern Great Barrier Reef Shipwrecks.</p><br>
<p>Red Mountain is located in the southeast corner of Washington state near the Tri-Cities between Rattlesnake Mountain and Candy Mountain. This region is situated among the Columbia, Snake and Yakima Rivers. The mountain covers an area of approximately 4,040 acre.</p><br>
<p>Red Mountain AVA, Washingtons smallest wine region appellation, is situated on the south-facing slope of Red Mountain, between the cities of Benton City and West Richland within the larger Yakima Valley. About 700 of the areas 4,040 acre are planted to winegrapes, which mainly include Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Cabernet franc, Syrah and Sangiovese. The area is home to 37 wineries.</p><br>
<p>Some of Washingtons top estates are sourcing grapes from the Red Mountain AVA. The sandy loam soil of the region is high in calcium and alkaline. Red Mountains vineyards are characterized by good air drainage, light soils and deeply rooted vines. With only 6 to 8 in of annual rainfall, area growers must irrigate, which allows them to control vine vigor and ease vines into dormancy before winter. Red Mountain&#39;s growing season averages 180 days.</p><br>
<h2>Nearby cities and towns</h2><br>
<p>Benton City, Kennewick, Pasco, Prosser, Richland, West Richland.</p><br>
<p>Batchawana Bay is a small bay on the eastern shore of Lake Superior, approximately 50 km north of Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario, Canada.</p><br>
<p>Batchawana Bay was termed Badjiwanung by the Ojibwe, referring to water that bubbles up. This occurs between Batchawana Island and Sand Point, where the lake narrows and a strong current and undertow results. The Ojibwe believed this was caused by an underwater spirit about to surface.</p><br>
<p>Batchawana Bay was an important fishing site for the Ojibwe, and later for the North West Company. The Hudson&#39;s Bay Company kept an outpost and fishing station at the mouth of the Batchawana River, which flows into the bay. In the early 1920s, the largest fish ever recorded in the Great Lakes was caught by Frank Lapoint in the bay. A sturgeon, it was reportedly 90 years old, measured 2.25 m (7.5 ft) and weighed 140 kg (310 lb).</p><br>
<p>The bay is formed on the north side by the Whitefish Point on the Canadian side of Lake Superior and divided from the Haviland and Harmony Bays by Batchawana Island. Batchawana Island and Whitefish Point are both of which are important routes and stopovers for migratory birds. Batchawana island was also reputedly the site of Spirit houses (elevated graves) of the Ojibwe.</p><br>
<p>The bay was historically notable as the dividing point separating the two Robinson Treaty areas between the Crown and the Ojibwe people.</p><br>
<p>Batchawana Bay Provincial Park is located on the western shore of the bay, as is the community of Batchawana Bay. The community is on Highway 563.</p><br>
<p>Nearby Batchawana Mountain () is the fourth highest point in Ontario at 653 m.</p><br>
<p>Toke is a lake in Drangedal municipality in Telemark, Norway, consisting of Upper and Lower Toke, which is connected via "Straumen" - "the stream". At the north end of Upper Toke is the town center Prestestranda. In the south, Lower Toke reaches into Bamble  and into Kragerø, where its outlet is in Lundereidelva at the Dalfoss hydroelectric plant. The lake, with its inflow, constitutes the majority of the Kragerø watershed.</p><br>
<p>With a surface of about 19 square miles and a drainage basin of 770 square miles, Toke is a substantial body of water in Telemark. The approximately 115 mile (185 km)-long shoreline, a large part of which consists of an old lakebed with deposits of silt, is strongly exposed to erosion because of development for power production. With its long shoreline and innumerable larger and smaller islands and narrow bays, Toke is a popular destination for boaters and sportsfishermen. Trout, Arctic char, whitefish, and perch are all found in the lake.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>After the last Ice Age, about 9,500 years ago, the sea along the coast of Telemark was about 330 feet (100m) higher than today. Where Toke is currently, Drangedalsfjorden reached about 27 miles (60 km) onto land from Kragerø, through Drangedal, and up to Bø in Tørdal. The land rose quickly after the weight of the ice had gone. After about 1,000 years Toke became a lake, as it is known today. At the bottom of Rørholtfjorden, about 295 feet (90m) under the surface of the sea, a 32–40 foot (10-12m) layer of saltwater still exists from that time.</p><br>
<p>Since the arrival of man in the area about 9,000 years ago, Toke has served as a main artery between the sea and the inland. Remnants from the Stone Age are found spread along the banks and on the islands of the lake. Cairns from the Bronze Age and Iron Ages are a common sight along the water&#39;s edge.</p><br>
<h2>Boat Trade</h2><br>
<p>In 1864, a canal was made in "Straumen" between Upper and Lower Toke to make trade with larger vessels possible, and to make the transport of timber easier. Steamboat traffic started the same year, with DS "Tokedølen" which serviced the Prestestranda-Merkebekk area. In the fall of 1888, the more luxurious DS "Turist" came along with the same traffic. The owner of this boat, Halvor H. Strømme, had plans to build a canal in the area from Merkebekk down to the sea, but nothing came of it.</p><br>
<p>Trains and buses overtook most transportation then, and "Tokedølen" ran out of steady traffic around 1923. "Turist" kept going until 1929, when transport was taken care of by tugboats and barges.</p><br>
<p>Car traffic to Grenland was dependent on ferry transport across Lower Toke from Vefall to Kjenndalen, over the Vefall sound. This area was served by the ferry captain Karl Straume, first with barges of increasing size, and later with self-built ferries. The last ferry, "Vefaldsund II", went out of service when RV356 was made. RV356, on the east side of Toke and across Straume bridge, opened for traffic on 15 December 1967. This was the last inland ferry in this kind of trade in Norway.</p><br>
<h2>Regulation</h2><br>
<p>Around 1530, the water saw came to the area, and the use of saws and export of timber grew steadily. Every river which ran into Toke was dammed for saw operation and timber transport, as well as Toke&#39;s outlet to the Lundereid river down towards Kragerø, where more sawing occurred, making use of the water power before it ebbed out into the sea.</p><br>
<p>Kragerøvassdragets fellesfløtningsforening (Kragerø Watershed Logging Association) got the first rights to regulate and dam Toke (and Hoseidvann) in 1899. With the advent of electricity, the rights to dam Toke were given to Norsk Elektrokemisk Aktieselskap (Norwegian Electrochemical Corporation) in 1916. These rights were followed by more extensions and delays, before Toke was dammed around 1940 as it is seen today, from 185 to 200 feet (60.35-55.75m). On average, more than 8,400 gallons (32,000 liters) of water run out of Toke each second. On its path towards the sea the water is used for power production in five hydroelectric plants throughout the municipality of Kragerø.</p><br>
<p>Since the beginning, regulation has been the subject of repeated complaints from the landowners along Toke, including Drangedal municipality. They think that the rights are wrongly interpreted, and that the banks around Toke are washed out illegally each year.</p><br>
<p></revision></p><br>
<p>Birks is a fell in the English Lake District situated two kilometres south west of the village of Patterdale in the Eastern Fells. The fells summit sits on a shoulder of the north east ridge of the higher and better known fell of St Sunday Crag, by which it is dominated, walkers often pass over the top of Birks either climbing or descending from the larger fell. The fell&#39;s name means a place where Birch trees predominate.</p><br>
<h2>Topography</h2><br>
<p>Birks reaches a height of 622 metres (2041 feet) and is characterised by a grassy summit ridge which has precipitous craggy slopes to the north and west which fall away to the valley of Grisedale, its southern flank is steep and grassy and ends in the valley of Deepdale and to the north east the main ridge descends towards Patterdale over Black Crag and through Glenamara Park.</p><br>
<p>Birks is regarded by guide book writers as an unspectacular fell, it has 19 metres of prominence from St Sunday Crag and therefore qualifies as a Nuttall, while Alfred Wainwright gives the fell a separate chapter in his Pictorial Guide to the Lakeland Fells because "it is sufficiently well defined to deserve a separate name".</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The principal rocks of the summit area are the pebbly sandstones of the Blind Cove Member. The flanks carry andesite sills and volcaniclastic sandstone.</p><br>
<h2>Ascents</h2><br>
<p>The fell is always climbed from the Patterdale valley, with no other starting point being viable. The ascent is a pleasant walk through the wooded Glenamara Park along a footpath which leaves Patterdale and follows Hag Beck and then a ruined dry stone wall to the summit. An alternative route goes via Thornhow End and finds a way through Black Crags at attain the top of the fell. Most walkers who climb Birks will continue on to St Sunday Crag which is a comfortable climb of about 240 metres with a few small dips on the ridge.</p><br>
<h2>Summit</h2><br>
<p>The highlight of the view from the summit is a good view of the lower reach of Ullswater.</p><br>
<p>Selside Pike is a fell in the English Lake District. It stands between the valleys of Mardale and Swindale in the Far Eastern Fells.</p><br>
<h2>Topography</h2><br>
<p>Mardale (Haweswater) and Swindale run parallel S-shaped courses, trending generally to the north east. Between them is a tract of high ground about two miles wide and five miles long. Branstree is the first fell on this ridge, followed by two more tops of similar height. The first at 2,207 ft is unnamed on OS maps, although the name High Howes has been offered in at least one guidebook. Wainwright considered this to be a subsidiary of Branstree, and accorded separate fell status to the next summit, Selside Pike, in his Pictorial Guide to the Lakeland Fells. That convention is followed here.</p><br>
<p>The upper parts of Selside Pike are characterised by smooth grassy slopes and the top of the fell has a dome-like appearance from most angles. The lower slopes on the western side- falling to the shore of Haweswater- are steeper with tongues of scree in evidence. Two small conifer plantations on the shore stand above the submerged village of Mardale Green and the Dun Bull inn. These were lost when the lake was raised in the 1940s to provide drinking water supplies.</p><br>
<p>The eastern side of the fell forms the head of Swindale proper, the upper valley being known as Mosedale. Swindale is a classic U-shaped valley, its profile almost a square section, with a flat base and sheer walls. Selside Pike&#39;s eastern slopes fall gently to about the 2,000 ft contour and then plunge over a wall of crag to the valley floor. Geordie Greathead Crag is the dominant feature and below this is the dry tarnbed of Dodd Bottom. Hobgrumble Gill falls down this face in a deep gully, separating Selside Pike from the north east ridge of High Howes. Above the crags the gill runs in a small hanging valley.</p><br>
<p>The ridge south westward to High Howes is grassy and broad, crossing a wet depression at Captain Whelter Bog. North eastwards from Selside Pike the ridge narrows, dropping over High Blake Dodd to the Mardale Corpse Road. Beyond this is Hare Shaw (1,650 ft), standing at the head of an area of rough fell on either side of the Naddle Beck. This area was covered in Wainwright&#39;s The Outlying Fells of Lakeland.</p><br>
<h2>Corpse Road</h2><br>
<p>The Corpse Road was originally used to carry the dead of Mardale to the nearest churchyard for burial. The route crosses into Swindale and then traverses further high ground to reach the village of Shap. The last such journey was made by John Holme of Brackenhow on 17 June 1736, by which time the right of burial had been granted to the tiny Holy Trinity church in Mardale Green. When, by 1936, the plans to raise Haweswater and submerge Mardale Green were finalised, the 100 or so burials made at Holy Trinity were disinterred and reburied at Shap.</p><br>
<h2>Summit</h2><br>
<p>The summit has a large stone cairn while all around is grass. The view of the Lakeland fells is confined to the head of Mardale, but Haweswater, Shap and the Pennines present a fine open prospect.</p><br>
<h2>Ascents</h2><br>
<p>Selside Pike can be climbed from Mardale via the Corpse road and High Blake Dodd. The same means of ascent can also be gained from Swindale, or the track up Mosedale can be used. There is no access for non-residents cars to the last mile and a half of the Swindale road.</p><br>
<p>Isola Bella  is one of the Borromean Islands of Lago Maggiore in north Italy. The island is situated in the Borromean Gulf 400 metres from the lakeside town of Stresa. Isola Bella is 320 metres long by 400 metres wide and is divided between the Palace, its Italianate garden, and a small fishing village.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Until 1632 the island—known only as l’isola inferiore or isola di sotto—was a rocky crag occupied by a tiny fishing village: but that year Carlo III of the influential House of Borromeo began the construction of a palazzo dedicated to his wife, Isabella D&#39;Adda, from whom the island takes its name. He entrusted the works to the Milanese Angelo Crivelli, who was also to be responsible for the planning the gardens. The works were interrupted around middle of the century when the Duchy of Milan was struck by a devastating outbreak of the plague.</p><br>
<p>Construction resumed when the island passed to Carlo’s sons, Cardinal Giberto III (1615–1672) and Vitaliano VI (1620–1690); the latter in particular, with the financial backing of his elder brother, entrusted the completion of the works to the Milanese architect Carlo Fontana and turned the villa into a place of sumptuous parties and theatrical events for the nobility of Europe.</p><br>
<p>The completion of the gardens, however, was left to his nephew Carlo IV (1657–1734). They were inaugurated in 1671.</p><br>
<p>The island achieved its highest level of social success during the period of Giberto V Borromeo (1751–1837) when guests included Edward Gibbon, Napoleon and his wife Joséphine de Beauharnais, and Caroline of Brunswick, the Princess of Wales. It is said that Caroline, having fallen in love with the place, did her best to convince the Borromeo family to sell her Isola Madre or the Castelli di Cannero islands; her request being turned down, she established herself on the banks of Lake Como at Cernobbio in the Villa d’Este.</p><br>
<p>A conference of high representatives of Italy, France and the United Kingdom was held in the palace at Isola Bella in April 1935, resulting in the agreement known as the Stresa Front.</p><br>
<h2>The island today</h2><br>
<p>Isola Bella is a popular tourist attraction, with a regular ferry service from Stresa, Laveno, Pallanza and Intra. It plays host to the annual Stresa music festival.</p><br>
